OCT^l  1913 


BV    3415 
Pott,    F 


P74  1913 
L .  Hawks 


1864-1947 


The  emergency  in  China 


FORWARD   MISSION   STUDY  COURSES 

EDITED    UNDER   THE   DIRECTION    OF  THE 

MISSIONARY  EDUCATION  MOVEMENT 
OF  THE  UNITED  STATES  AND  CANADA 


THE   EMERGENCY 
IN  CHINA 


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tary of  your  mission  board  or  society. 


YUAN  SHIH  KAI 


[Frontispiece] 


THE    EMERGENCY 


IN    CHINA 


BY 


y/ 


F.  L.  HAWKS   POTT 


NEW    YORK 

Missionary  Education  Movement  of  the 

United  States  and  Canada 


Copyright,  1913,  by 

MISSIONARY  EDUCATION  MOVEMENT 

OF  THE  UNITED   STATES  AND  CANADA 

New  York 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER  PAGE 

Telegram ix 

Preface xi 

I     Introductory — Historical  Review  of  China's  Inter- 
national Relations 3 

II    Results  of  the  Recent  Revolution 37 

III  Industrial  and  Commercial  Developments 81 

IV  Social  Transformation 109 

V     New  Education 143 

VI     Religious  Conditions 181 

VII     The  Influence  of  Christianity 215 

VIII     Present  and  Future  of  the  Christian  Church 245 


APPENDIXES 

A    The   Orthography   and    Pronunciation   of   Chinese 

Names 279 

B     Bibhography 281 

C    Area  and  Population 286 

D     Dates    of    Important    Events    in    Modern    Chinese 

History. 288 

E    A  Table  of  Chinese  Dynastic  Dates 290 

F     Opium 291 

G    Unoccupied  Fields 293 

H    Railway  Systems 294 

I     Statistics  of  the  Work  of  Protestant  Missions  in 

China  for  1910 297 

Index 299 


ILLUSTRATIONS 

Yuan  Shih  Kai Frontispiece 

Empress  Dowager Page  24 

Sun  Yat  Sen "  40 

Map  of  Chinese  Empire "  46 

First  Republican  Assembly "  56 

Interior  of  a  Legislative  Assembly "  56 

Railway  Map  of  China "  83 

Train  on  Shanghai- Hangchow  Railway "  88 

Soochow  Station,  Shanghai-Nanking  Railway "  88 

Interior  Hanyang  Iron  and  Steel  Works "  98 

Hill  Sixty-five  Per  Cent.  Iron  Ore "  98 

Poppy  Field  of  the  Past "  1 14 

Burning  Opium  Pipes "  114 

Chinese  Cadets "  134 

Chart  Showing  Educational  System "  151 

Government  Normal  School,  Canton — 800  Students..  "  154 

Ancestor  Worship  at  the  Grave "  188 

Paper  Horse,  Cart,  and  Slaves  to  Bum  at  the  Grave  "  188 

Temple  Converted  into  Christian  School "  200 

Temple  Converted  into  Government  School "  200 

St.  John's  University,  Shanghai "  218 

Martin  Hall,  Canton  Christian  College "  218 

Dr.  Arthur  Jackson "  222 

Methodist  Publishing  House,  Shanghai "  232 

Shanghai  Mission  Press,  Shanghai "  232 

Ding  Li  Mei,  Chinese  Evangelist "  250 

Temple  of  Heaven "  254 

Self-supporting  Church,  Yu  Yao,  near  Ningpo "  254 

Colored  Map End 


TELEGRAM 

Peking,  April  19,  1913. 
Secretary  of  State, 
Washington, 

April  19,  9  A.  M.    Your  telegram  of  April  18, 
II  A.  M. 

The  following  message  adopted  by  the  Cabinet 
was  sent  yesterday  by  the  Chinese  Government  to 
the  provincial  authorities  and  leaders  of  the  Chris- 
tian churches  in  China: 

"Prayer  is  requested  for  the  National  Assembly 
now  in  session;  for  the  new  Government;  for  the 
President  who  is  to  be  elected ;  for  the  Constitution 
of  the  Republic;  that  the  Government  may  be 
recognized  by  the  powers;  that  peace  may  reign 
within  our  country;  that  strong  and  virtuous  men 
may  be  elected  to  office;  and  that  the  Government 
may  be  established  upon  a  strong  foundation. 
Upon  receipt  of  this  telegram  you  are  requested 
to  notify  all  churches  in  your  province  that  April 
twenty-seventh  has  been  set  aside  as  a  day  of 
prayer  for  the  nation.     Let  all  take  part." 

WILLIAMS. 
Charge  d'affaires. 


IX 


PREFACE 

The  promise  to  write  this  book  was  given  before 
the  Revolution  broke  out.  It  seemed  comparatively- 
easy  when  the  task  was  first  undertaken  to  give  a 
brief  summary  of  present  conditions  in  China,  and 
to  point  out  some  of  the  currents  of  thought  which 
sooner  or  later  would  produce  startling  results,  but 
the  difficulties  increased  a  hundred  fold  after  China 
had  been  shaken  to  its  foundation  by  the  sudden 
political  tempest. 

To  write  of  present  conditions  seemed  somewhat 
like  attempting  to  describe  the  transitory  images 
produced  in  a  kaleidoscope,  inasmuch  as  everything 
was  in  flux,  and  nothing  was  permanent  for  any 
length  of  time. 

One  felt  that  the  writing  of  some  of  the  chapters 
must  be  postponed  as  long  as  possible,  in  hope  that 
a  state  of  partial  equilibrium  might  be  reached  be- 
fore they  were  penned.  As  a  matter  of  fact  Chap- 
ter II  on  the  "Results  of  the  Recent  Revolution'^ 
was  the  last  one  taken  in  hand. 

Although  everything  is  changing  and  it  is  be- 
yond human  ken  to  know  the  final  result,  yet  there 
are  certain  great  forces  at  work  which  will  not  dis- 
appear. The  surface  may  be  stormy,  but  the  waters 
beneath  are  still.     Believing  as  we  do  in  a  God  of 

xi 


xii  Preface 

history,  we   can   await   in   patience   and  faith   the 
working  out  of  his  plan  in  regard  to  this  country. 

We  know  that  progress  could  only  come  by  the 
break-up  of  the  old  conservative  and  corrupt  regime, 
and  that  in  the  end  something  better  and  higher 
will  be  produced. 

It  is  a  transition  period,  and  this  is  what  we 
have  tried  to  emphasize.  It  would  be  foolish  to 
give  way,  as  some  do,  to  feelings  of  undue  exulta- 
tion. The  destructive  work  has  been  accomplished, 
but  the  constructive  has  only  begun,  and  it  must 
extend  over  a  long  period  of  time. 

Because  it  is  a  transition  period,  the  opportunity 
to  influence  China  is  all  the  greater.  Before  the 
new  civilization  crystallizes,  now,  during  the  time 
when  everything  is  in  solution,  the  most  determined 
effort  should  be  made  to  win  China  for  Christ. 

We  have  tried  to  write  soberly  and  to  state  facts. 
We  have  pointed  out  the  many  encouraging  features 
of  the  situation  and  at  the  same  time  its  dangers 
and  difficulties.  Our  hope  is  that  the  book  may  help 
to  rouse  interest  in  one  of  the  most  important  move- 
ments the  world  has  ever  seen,  and  inspire  the 
Church  to  greater  missionary  activity  so  that  China 
may  be  more  powerfully  influenced  by  the  spiritual 
and  moral  forces  of  the  religion  of  Christ. 

F.  L.  Hawks  Pott. 
Shanghai,  China, 
February  15,  191 3. 


INTRODUCTORY— HISTORICAL  REVIEW  OF 
CHINA'S  INTERNATIONAL  RELATIONS 


CHAPTER   I 

INTRODUCTORY— HISTORICAL  REVIEW  OF 
CHINA'S    INTERNATIONAL   RELATIONS 

No  other  nation  with  which  the  world  is  acquainted 
has  been  so  constantly  true  to  itself;  no  other  nation 
has  developed  a  civilisation  so  completely  independent 
of  any  extraneous  influences;  no  other  nation  has  elab- 
orated  its  ideals  in  such  absolute  segregation  from 
alien  thoughts;  no  other  nation  has  preserved  the 
long  stream  of  its  literature  so  entirely  free  from  for- 
eign affluents;  no  other  nation  has  ever  reached  a 
moral  and  national  elevation  so  high  above  the  heads 
of  contemporary  states. 

— Captain  Frank  Brinkley,  quoted  by  William  T.  Ellis 

Ideas  of  the  Orient  Reversed.  Formerly  writers 
of  history  were  very  positive  in  their  statements 
as  to  the  impossibility  of  higher  national  and  social 
development  on  the  part  of  Eastern  peoples.  They 
maintained  that  these  nations  had  already  reached 
the  summit  of  their  evolution,  and  no  further  prog- 
ress in  the  future  was  to  be  expected.  Such  theo- 
rizing has  been  sadly  upset  by  what  has  already 
transpired  in  Japan  and  China.  The  Island  Empire 
was  the  first  to  prove  the  possibility  of  the  rejuve- 
nation of  an  Eastern  people  by  the  assimilation  of 


4  The  Emergency  in  China 

elements  of  Western  civilization.  She  emerged  like 
a  bright  new  star  of  the  first  magnitude,  and  in  an 
incredibly  short  period  of  time  won  for  herself 
a  place  among  the  great  powers  of  the  world.  Now 
we  are  witnessing  a  similar  movement  in  the  old 
civilization  of  China,  and  are  still  rubbing  our  eyes 
with  astonishment.  In  years  to  come,  when  his- 
torians review  the  story  of  the  twentieth  century, 
they  will  point  out  as  the  most  remarkable  events 
of  modern  times  the  appearance  of  China  and 
Japan  upon  the  stage  of  the  world's  drama,  and 
will  show  how  it  influenced  the  whole  course  of 
future  civilization. 

Review  of  China's  Foreign  Relations.  In  this 
chapter  we  shall  attempt  to  review  briefly  the  his- 
tory of  China's  foreign  relations,  and  trace  out  the 
political  causes  which  have  led  her  to  abandon 
her  old  policy  of  exclusiveness  and  to  modernize 
her  government  and  social  institutions  so  as  to  take 
her  rightful  place  in  the  family  of  progressive  na- 
tions. 

Character  of  China's  Civilization.  We  are  famil- 
iar with  the  fact  that  China  reached  a  high  stage 
of  civilization  long  before  the  beginning  of  the 
Christian  era,  but  perhaps  we  do  not  sufficiently 
bear  in  mind  that  it  was  a  civilization  developed  in 
isolation  from  the  rest  of  the  world.  The  geographi- 
cal position  of  China  cut  her  off  from  being  influ- 
enced to  any  appreciable  extent  by  other  races  and 
nations.  There  were  ancient  trade  routes  to  India 
and  Persia,  and  the  outlying  provinces  of  the  Ro- 


Review  of  China's  International  Relations        5 

man  Empire,  but  they  did  not  serve  as  highv^rays 
by  which  new  forces  found  their  way  into  the  em- 
pire. The  greatest  external  influence  was  that 
exerted  by  the  Buddhist  missionaries  who  came 
from  India  in  62  A.  D.,  in  the  reign  of  the  Emperor 
Ming-Ti,  and  this  foreign  element  has  undoubtedly 
modified  Chinese  civilization  to  a  certain  extent. 
China,  however,  is  like  a  sea  which  renders  salt 
all  the  waters  which  flow  into  it,  and  Chinese 
Buddhism  has  been  so  transformed  that  it  differs  in 
many  respects  from  the  original  cult.  Thus  the 
civilization  of  the  East  and  the  West  were  de- 
veloped independently  of  one  another,  and  China 
was  as  little  known  to  the  West  as  the  West  was 
to  her. 

Visit  of  Marco  Polo.  In  the  thirteenth  century 
Marco  Polo,  the  celebrated  Venetian  traveler,  made 
his  journey  to  China.  During  his  long  sojourn  he 
learned  much  about  Chinese  civilization,  and  upon 
his  return  to  Europe  he  astounded  the  people  of  the 
West  by  the  stories  he  told  in  regard  to  what  had 
been  up  to  that  time  almost  an  unknown  part  of 
the  world. 

Early  Attitude  of  China.  The  attitude  of  China 
toward  foreigners  throughout  the  Middle  Ages  was 
quite  different  from  what  it  became  at  a  later  pe- 
riod. "The  imperial  government  placed  the  aliens 
practically  on  the  same  footing  as  its  own  subjects: 
it  opened  to  them  public  employments  and  ex- 
tended to  them  the  fullest  protection.  Olopun,  one 
of  the  Nestorians  who  entered  China  in  the  Tang 


6  The  Emergency  in  China 

Dynasty,  was  raised  to  the  rank  of  high  priest  and 
national  protector  by  Emperor  Kautsung.  Marco 
Polo,  though  a  Venetian  by  birth,  was  appointed 
to  the  office  of  prefect  of  Yangchow,  which  he  held 
for  three  years.  John  de  Corvino,  a  Romish  mis- 
sionary, was  given  an  imperial  audience,  and  al- 
lowed to  build  a  Catholic  church  with  a  steeple 
and  bells,  preach  the  gospel,  and  baptize,  even  in 
the  capital  of  the  empire/'^ 

Coming  of  the  Portuguese.  The  first  people  from 
Europe  to  come  knocking  at  the  door  of  China 
asking  for  permission  to  trade  were  the  adventurous 
Portuguese.  In  15 17  Fernao  Peres  de  Andrade 
entered  the  Canton  River  with  two  ships  and  de- 
manded the  privilege  of  commercial  intercourse. 
The  Chinese  received  these  strangers  from  over  the 
seas  in  a  kindly  spirit.  In  a  short  time  however 
the  feeling  of  amity  was  turned  into  one  of  deadly 
hatred,  on  account  of  the  high-handed  manner  in 
which  the  Portuguese  acted  toward  those  with 
whom  they  entered  into  business  relations.  The 
disorderly  conduct  of  the  Portuguese  colonists,  who 
had  settled  at  Ningpo,  caused  the  generally  pacific 
Ming  Emperor  in  1545  to  give  orders  that  they 
should  be  attacked  by  land  and  sea.  As  a  result  an 
assault  was  made  on  the  colony  in  which,  accord- 
ing to  report,  12,000  Christians,  including  800  Por- 
tuguese, were  massacred. 

Coming   of   the    Spaniard.     Next    the    Spaniards 

*V.  K.  W.  Koo,  The  Status  of  Aliens  in  China,  19. 


Review  of  China's  International  Relations        7 

made  their  appearance  in  1575,  but  they  failed  to 
restore  the  prestige  of  Westerners  in  the  eyes  of 
the  Chinese.  They  made  a  settlement  in  the  Philip- 
pine Islands  which  they  held  until  the  recent  war 
between  the  United  States  and  Spain.  The  Chinese 
emigrated  in  large  numbers  to  Manila,  the  capital 
of  the  islands.  The  Spaniards,  fearful  lest  all  the 
trade  should  fall  into  the  hands  of  successful  Chi- 
nese merchants,  and  alarmed  lest  they  should  lose 
their  control  of  the  islands,  instituted  a  barbarous 
massacre,  in  which  some  20,000  people  were  put  to 
the  sword. 

Reasons  for  Adoption  of  "Closed  Door"  Policy. 
From  this  time  a  marked  change  took  place  in  the 
attitude  of  the  Chinese  government  toward  foreign- 
ers. Vigorous  measures  of  surveillance  and  restric- 
tion were  adopted,  and  to  a  large  extent  alien  mer- 
chants and  missionaries  were  excluded  from  the 
empire.  The  causes  of  this  new  attitude  may  be 
briefly  summarized  as  follows:  In  the  first  place, 
the  reports  of  the  conquest  of  the  East  Indies,  and 
the  forcible  occupation  of  parts  of  India  and  the 
Malay  Peninsula  by  Portuguese  adventurers 
awakened  the  suspicions  of  the  Chinese  as  to  the 
ulterior  motives  of  the  foreigners  rapidly  flocking 
to  their  shores.  They  feared  this  aggression,  espe- 
cially at  a  time  when  there  was  much  internal  dis- 
order in  the  empire.  In  the  second  place,  from  her 
own  experience  China  did  not  receive  favorable 
first  impressions  of  Europeans,  and  the  cruelty  of 
Portuguese  and   Spaniards  had  not  a  little  to  do 


8  The  Emergency  in  China 

with  the  formation  of  the  opinion  that  all  West- 
erners were  barbarians. 

Divergent  Ideals.  Furthermore,  we  should  bear 
in  mind  the  divergence  of  the  ideals  of  Western 
and  Eastern  civilization.  The  word  "progress" 
sums  up  the  spirit  of  Western  civilization.  It  is 
full  of  restlessness,  desire  for  change,  and  looks 
forward  to  better  conditions.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  East  longs  for  rest,  peace,  and  the  maintenance 
of  the  equilibrium.  The  one  is  characterized  by  as- 
piration, the  other  by  the  desire  to  conserve  the 
past.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  difficult  it  has  been 
for  the  two  civilizations  to  understand  each  other 
and  to  harmonize.  Until  recently  they  have  had 
entirely  different  view-points. 

Embassies  from  Russia  and  Holland.  In  the 
reign  of  Kang  Hsi  (1662-1723),  the  second  of  the 
Manchu  emperors,  two  European  embassies  ar- 
rived at  Peking  for  the  purpose  of  opening  up  com- 
mercial relations.  One  came  overland  from  Russia 
by  way  of  Siberia,  and  the  other  from  Holland  by 
sea.  Neither  met  with  success  in  obtaining  the 
privileges  they  sought,  for  the  Chinese  considering 
their  own  emperor  superior  to  all  other  barbarian 
nations  refused  to  treat  on  terms  of  equality  with 
their  representatives.  This  contemptuous  attitude 
toward  other  nations  accounts  for  the  insistence  on 
the  part  of  the  Chinese  that  the  kowtow  ^  should 

*  The  word  kowtow  means  the  knocking  of  the  head  on  the 
ground.  The  ceremony  consists  of  three  kneelings  and  nine 
prostrations  with  the  head  touching  the  ground. 


Review  of  China's  International  Relations        9 

be  performed  before  his  imperial  majesty  by  all  for- 
eign envoys  who  visited  the  court.  They  regarded 
them  as  coming  from  countries  standing  in  the  rela- 
tion of  tributary  or  vassal  states  to  the  great  Middle 
Kingdom.  The  envoys,  realizing  the  real  signifi- 
cance of  this  lowly  act  of  obeisance,  persistently 
refused  to  comply  with  the  demand  for  its  perform- 
ance. The  Dutch  submitted,  but  did  not  gain  any- 
thing by  their  compliance. 

Beginning  of  Commercial  Relations  with  Eng- 
land. Commercial  relations  between  England  and 
China  began  in  1635,  during  the  reign  of  Charles  I. 
A  charter  was  at  that  time  granted  to  a  company  of 
merchants  desiring  to  promote  commerce  with 
China,  and  Captain  John  Weddell  sailed  for  the 
East  with  a  small  fleet  of  vessels.  The  Portu- 
guese who  had  by  this  time  settled  at  Macao  viewed 
with  jealousy  the  arrival  of  these  new  aspirants  for 
trade,  and  stirred  up  the  Chinese  to  resist  their  de- 
mands, reporting  them  to  be  rogues,  thieves,  beg- 
gars, and  what  not,  so  that  they  became  suspicious 
of  the  real  meaning  of  the  English.  Consequently, 
when  the  English  fleet  was  passing  the  Bogue 
forts  on  the  way  up  to  Canton,  a  Chinese  battery 
suddenly  opened  fire.  The  British  ships  retaliated, 
and  after  silencing  the  guns  of  the  battery,  landed 
a  party  of  sailors,  took  possession  of  the  forts,  and 
hoisted  their  colors.  Then  proceeding  to  Canton, 
Captain  Weddell  disposed  of  his  cargo,  loaded  his 
vessels  with  Chinese  merchandise,  and  returned  to 
England.     After   this    beginning,   trade   gradually 


10  The  Emergency  in  China 

developed  between  the  two  countries,  until  in  1715 
the  East  India  Company  decided  to  establish  a  fac- 
tory, that  is,  a  trading  post,  at  Canton,  with  a  per- 
manent staff,  and  to  send  out  ships  at  stated  sea- 
sons for  the  exchange  of  commodities  with  the 
Chinese  merchants. 

Wholly  a  Response  to  Pressure.  We  have  dwelt 
in  some  detail  upon  the  beginnings  of  European 
intercourse  with  China,  because  it  is  important 
that  we  should  bear  clearly  in  mind  China's  former 
attitude  toward  the  people  of  other  nations.  She 
never  desired  to  enter  into  closer  relations  with 
them,  and  only  yielded  to  their  demands  on  ac- 
count of  the  pressure  which  they  brought  to  bear 
upon  her. 

Mission  of  Earl  of  Macartney.  Two  missions 
were  sent  to  China  from  Great  Britain  for  the  pur- 
pose of  arriving  at  a  better  understanding  in  regard 
to  the  trade  between  the  two  countries — one  under 
the  Earl  of  Macartney  in  1793,  and  the  other  under 
Lord  Amherst  in  1816.  The  vessel  upon  which 
the  Earl  of  Macartney  proceeded  up  the  Peiho 
River  to  the  capital  displayed  a  flag  bearing  in 
Chinese  the  inscription,  "An  envoy  bearing  tribute 
from  England."  When  he  reached  Peking  a  con- 
troversy took  place  in  regard  to  the  kowtow.  He 
consented  to  perform  this  ceremony,  provided  a 
Chinese  official  of  equal  rank  with  himself,  dressed 
in  robes  of  state,  should  do  likewise  before  a  por- 
trait of  his  Britannic  majesty.  Ultimately  it  was  ar- 
ranged that,  on  approaching  the  emperor,  he  should 


Review  of  China's  International  Relations       ii 

bend  one  knee — the  mark  of  respect  which  he 
would  show  to  his  own  sovereign.  As  far  as  con- 
cerns a  settlement  in  regard  to  trading  privileges, 
his  visit  proved  entirely  fruitless. 

Mission  of  Lord  Amherst.  Lord  Amherst  in  1816 
met  with  even  ruder  treatment.  On  his  way  to 
the  capital  the  Chinese  officials  wrangled  with  him 
upon  the  subject  of  the  kowtow.  When  he  reached 
the  summer  palace  at  Yuen-min-yuen  at  five  o'clock 
in  the  morning,  his  Chinese  escort  insisted  on  tak- 
ing him  to  an  immediate  audience.  Lord  Amherst 
pleaded  fatigue,  and  the  non-arrival  of  his  court 
dress  and  of  his  credentials,  and  asked  to  have  the 
audience  postponed.  Thereupon  the  Chinese  au- 
thorities informed  him  that  he  was  to  start  at  once 
upon  his  return  journey.  Thus  his  mission  ended 
in  a  humiliating  failure. 

Appointment  of  Lord  Napier.  The  next  chapter 
of  commercial  relations  between  Great  Britain  and 
China  began  in  1833  when  the  control  of  the  British 
trade  at  Canton  passed  out  of  the  hands  of  the 
East  India  Company,  and  Lord  Napier  was  ap- 
pointed as  Commercial  Superintendent  of  the  Brit- 
ish government  in  China.  In  the  letter  of  instruc- 
tions received  from  Lord  Palmerston  there  was  the 
following  short  paragraph,  which  "acted  as  a  fuse 
to  fire  the  petard" :  "Your  Lordship  will  announce 
your  arrival  at  Canton  by  letter  to  the  Viceroy." 
This  virtually  implied  that  his  status  was  that  of 
a  royal  envoy  and  not  of  a  mere  superintendent  of 
trade,  and  surpassed  all  former  precedents  in  of- 


12  The  Emergency  in  China 

fending  Chinese  prejudice.  As  is  well  known,  he 
was  never  able  to  carry  out  these  instructions  and 
surmount  the  obstacles  placed  in  his  way.  The 
Chinese  carried  on  their  trade  with  the  British 
merchants  through  a  company  of  Chinese  mer- 
chants, known  as  the  Co-hong,  and  the  British  mer- 
chants had  no  direct  access  whatever  to  the  Chinese 
authorities.  The  Chinese  could  not  understand  why 
the  British  government  had  the  temerity  to  demand 
that  there  should  be  communication  on  terms  of 
equality  between  an  official  representative  of  Great 
Britain  and  the  viceroy  of  Canton.  Sooner  than 
consent  to  what  appeared  to  be  a  great  indignity, 
for  a  time  they  put  a  stop  to  all  intercourse,  and 
it  was  not  until  Lord  Napier  had  withdrawn  to 
Macao  that  the  embargo  on  trade  was  removed. 
China  was  unwilling  to  remove  the  restrictions  on 
commerce,  or  to  receive  envoys  except  as  tribute 
bearers.  It  was  impossible  to  obtain  concessions 
from  her  on  these  points  except  by  force  of  arms. 
Opium  Question  and  Appointment  of  Commis- 
sioner Lin  Tse-su.  Very  unfortunately  the  armed 
conflict  arose  over  the  question  of  the  importation 
of  opium.  The  Emperor  Tao  Kwang,  who  suc- 
ceeded to  the  imperial  throne  in  1820,  determined 
to  enforce  the  law  for  the  prohibition  of  opium  in 
China.  "His  motive  was  pure,  and  his  earnestness 
unquestioned,"  but  owing  to  the  dishonesty  of  the 
native  officials  he  found  the  measure  hard  to  carry 
out.  He  appointed  Lin  Tse-su  Imperial  High  Com- 
missioner to  investigate  and  deal  with  the  situation 


Review  of  China's  International  Relations       13 

at  Canton,  where  the  foreign  merchants  with  the 
connivance  of  the  native  authorities  were  carrying 
on  an  extensive  trade  in  the  drug.  A  short  time 
after  his  arrival  at  Canton  he  demanded  from  the 
foreign  merchants  the  surrender  of  all  the  opium  in 
their  possession,  and  a  pledge  that  their  govern- 
ment or  governments  should  enact  that  the  "mer- 
chants are  to  pay  implicit  obedience  to  the  prohib- 
iting laws  of  the  celestial  court,  must  not  again 
introduce  opium  into  the  inner  land,  and  will  no 
longer  be  allowed  to  manufacture  opium."  The 
foreign  merchants  were  kept  confined  in  their  fac- 
tories and  pressure  was  brought  to  bear  upon  them. 
Finally,  acting  on  the  advice  of  Captain  Elliot,  at 
that  time  Chief  Superintendent  of  British  Trade, 
20,291  chests,  valued  at  $306,840,  were  delivered 
up  to  Commissioner  Lin  Tse-su  and  were  com- 
pletely destroyed  (June  3,  1839). 

Other  Causes  of  Friction.  Further  difficulties 
soon  arose.  Although  after  the  surrender  of  the 
opium  permission  to  trade  again  was  granted  by 
the  Chinese  authorities,  yet  it  was  hedged  about  by 
many  vexatious  restrictions.  On  July  i,  1839,  a 
party  of  sailors  while  on  shore  on  the  Kowloon 
side  of  the  Hongkong  anchorage  became  involved 
in  a  shameful  riot  attended  with  unmanly  outrage 
upon  men,  women,  and  children,  and  the  loss  of  in- 
nocent life.  A  Chinese  named  Lin  Wei-hi  was 
killed  in  the  fracas  and  the  officials  immediately 
insisted  that  the  murderer  should  be  handed  over 
to  them  by  the  British  authorities,  although  Cap- 


14  The  Emergency  in  China 

tain  Elliot  repeatedly  protested  that  it  was  impossi- 
ble to  discover  the  guilty  person.  Furthermore, 
Commissioner  Lin  Tse-su  still  brought  many 
charges  of  opium  smuggling  against  British  mer- 
chants. 

Causes  of  First  Anglo-Chinese  War.  Such  was 
the  train  of  events  leading  up  to  the  first  war  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  China.  It  is  always  re- 
ferred to  in  China  as  the  Opium  War  and  the  Chi- 
nese can  never  be  convinced  that  the  British 
fought  for  any  other  reason  than  to  retaliate  for 
the  opium  destroyed  by  Commissioner  Lin  Tse-su 
and  because  they  were  loath  to  relinquish  this  lu- 
crative source  of  profit.  In  the  famous  letter  writ- 
ten by  Commissioner  Lin  Tse-su  to  Queen  Victoria 
he  is  entirely  silent  as  to  any  other  cause  of  dis- 
pute. Without  in  the  least  condoning  this  im- 
moral and  illegal  trade,  we  can  clearly  see  that 
sooner  or  later  there  was  bound  to  be  a  clash  be- 
tween the  two  countries.  The  first  war  with  China 
was  but  the  beginning  of  a  struggle  between  the 
extreme  East  and  the  West — the  East  refusing  to 
treat  on  terms  of  equality  diplomatically  or  com- 
mercially, with  Western  nations,  and  the  West 
insisting  on  being  so  treated.  We  can  sympathize 
with  the  Chinese  on  account  of  their  ignorance, 
but  we  must  remember  at  the  same  time  that  it 
was  an  ignorance  which  refused  to  be  enlightened 
except  by  force. 

Treaty  of  Nanking.  The  war  was  brought  to  a 
close  by  the  Treaty  of  Nanking  in  1842.     The  is- 


Review  of  China's  International  Relations       15 

land  of  Hongkong  was  ceded  to  Great  Britain,  an 
indemnity  was  paid  for  the  opium  destroyed,  offi- 
cial correspondence  was  to  be  carried  on  on  equal 
terms,  and  Canton,  Amoy,  Foochow,  Ningpo,  and 
Shanghai  were  opened  to  foreign  trade  as  treaty 
ports,  where  foreigners  could  reside.  The  Chinese 
had  yielded  to  force,  and  the  terms  of  the  treaty 
were  most  unpopular,  especially  in  Canton  and  the 
South.  No  real  change  of  attitude  on  the  part  of 
China  toward  foreign  nations  had  been  effected. 

Further  Causes  of  Friction.  There  were  many 
causes  of  friction  between  the  Chinese  and  the 
British  merchants.  The  former  were  determined 
to  evade  as  long  as  possible  the  carrying  out  of 
the  agreement  in  the  Treaty  of  Nanking  consenting 
to  the  opening  of  the  city  of  Canton  to  foreigners. 
Even  the  British  consul  was  unable  to  hold  com- 
munication with  the  Chinese  officials  within  the  city 
walls.  This  extreme  state  of  tension  was  bound 
sooner  or  later  to  lead  to  serious  difficulties,  and 
in  October,  1856,  an  event  occurred  which  precipi- 
tated hostilities  and  led  to  the  second  conflict  be- 
tween Great  Britain  and  China,  usually  called  the 
Arrow  War. 

Dispute  Over  the  Arrow.  The  dispute  arose 
over  the  hauling  down  of  the  British  flag  from  the 
mast  of  a  lorcha  (a  vessel  with  European  hull 
and  Chinese  rigging)  named  the  Arrow  in  the  har- 
bor at  Whampoa,  and  the  removal  by  force  there- 
from of  twelve  Chinese  sailors  by  Chinese  officials. 
The   British    government   at    Hongkong   in    order 


l6  The  Emergency  in  China 

to  facilitate  the  trade  of  the  Chinese  colonists  of 
the  island,  granted  under  certain  restrictions  sailing 
letters  to  Chinese  vessels,  giving  them  the  protec- 
tion of  the  British  flag.  The  vessel  in  question 
had  been  registered  at  Hongkong. 

Counter-claims.  The  British  claimed  that  their 
national  flag  had  been  insulted,  and  that  treaty 
arrangements  had  been  violated.  Mr.  Harry  S. 
Parkes,  the  British  consul,  demanded  that  the  crew 
should  be  returned  to  the  Arrow  in  the  consurs 
presence,  and  agreed  that  if  charged  with  any  crime 
they  would  then  be  conveyed  to  the  British  con- 
sulate, where  in  conjunction  with  proper  officers 
appointed  by  the  Chinese  officials  the  case  should 
be  investigated.  The  Chinese  claimed  that  the 
British  flag  was  not  flying  when  the  vessel  was 
boarded,  and  insisted  that  they  had  a  right  to  act 
as  they  had  done  because  they  were  in  search 
of  a  notorious  pirate,  who  had  recently  committed 
an  act  of  piracy.  Furthermore,  they  stated  that 
the  Arrow  had  no  right  to  fly  the  British  flag,  in- 
asmuch as  the  time  of  her  license  had  expired. 
This  fact  however  could  not  have  been  known  to 
them  at  the  time  when  the  vessel  was  boarded. 
As  far  as  we  can  get  at  the  evidence,  there  was  no 
just  cause  for  war,  but  hostilities  were  brought 
about  by  predisposing  causes. 

Two  Remaining  Barriers  to  Intercourse.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  pride  of  the  Chinese,  which  made  it 
impossible  for  them  to  treat  on  terms  of  equality 
with    men    of   other    nations,    there    were    reasons 


Review  of  China's  International  Relations       17 

which  led  the  Chinese  to  regard  with  disfavor  the 
increase  of  foreign  intercourse.  In  the  first  place, 
there  was  the  coolie  traffic  of  Macao.  Chinese 
coolies  were  constantly  kidnaped,  taken  to  Macao, 
and  thence  sent  off  on  the  forced  contract  system 
to  work  in  Cuba,  Peru,  and  California.  In  this  ne- 
farious traffic  the  Portuguese  were  the  greatest  of- 
fenders. In  the  second  place,  there  was  the  open 
sore  of  the  continuance  of  the  smuggling  of  opium, 
although  the  trade  was  illegal ;  and  it  was  often 
carried  on  by  ships  of  the  class  to  which  the  Arrow 
belonged. 

Alliance  between  Great  Britain  and  France.  The 
French  government,  actuated  partly  by  the  desire 
to  seek  reparation  for  the  massacre  of  a  missionary 
in  west  Kwangsi,  and  partly  by  the  spirit  of  im- 
perial aggrandizement  which  had  manifested  itself 
during  the  reign  of  the  Emperor  Napoleon  III, 
joined  with  the  British  in  hostilities  against  China. 
The  allied  forces  of  the  two  nations  captured  Can- 
ton, and  then  carried  the  war  to  the  North.  The 
Taku  forts  at  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho  River  were 
taken  and  the  Chinese  were  forced  to  sue  for  peace. 

Treaty  of  Tientsin.  The  war  was  brought  to  a 
close  by  the  Treaty  of  Tientsin  (June  26,  1858). 
Among  the  articles  of  the  treaty  were  the  following: 
The  right  of  residence  by  foreign  ministers  in 
Peking,  the  opening  up  of  five  additional  treaty 
ports,  and  the  toleration  of  the  Christian  religion. 
At  this  time  Russia  and  the  United  States,  as  well 
as   Great  Britain  and   France,   made  treaties   with 


i8  The  Emergency  in  China 

China,  although  they  had  played  no  part  in  the 
conflict.  There  was  a  clause  in  the  British  and 
French  treaties  agreeing  to  the  exchange  of  the 
ratifications  at  Peking. 

Difficulties  in  Regard  to  Ratification.  Later  on 
the  Chinese  tried  to  evade  the  carrying  out  of  this 
provision,  for  by  yielding  to  this  demand  they 
v^^ould  go  a  long  ivay  toward  recognizing  the  equal- 
ity of  Western  powers  with  China.  When  the  al- 
lied fleet  of  Great  Britain  and  France  arrived  at 
Taku  they  found  that  the  forts  had  been  strength- 
ened, and  that  the  mouth  of  the  Peiho  had  been 
blocked  by  barriers  consisting  of  large  stakes  bound 
together  with  heavy  chains.  When  they  attempted 
to  force  the  passage  they  met  with  vigorous  resist- 
ance and  were  forced  to  retire. 

Expedition  to  Peking.  This  led  to  acts  of  re- 
prisal on  the  part  of  the  British  and  the  French 
and  the  despatch  of  an  expedition  to  Peking.  In 
this  expedition,  unfortunately  for  the  good  name  of 
the  West,  the  Summer  Palace  was  destroyed  as  a 
punitive  measure  on  account  of  the  cruel  death  of 
some  prisoners  who  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of 
the  Chinese.  It  was  an  act  of  vengeance  more  in 
keeping  with  the  ethics  of  the  country  invaded 
than  of  the  religion  professed  by  the  invaders. 

Effect  of  Machinery.  It  is  interesting  to  remem- 
ber that  one  of  the  causes  leading  to  the  expansion 
of  Western  trade  in  the  East  was  the  introduction 
of  machinery  into  England  in  the  early  part  of  the 
nineteenth  century.    The  home  market  was  unable 


Review  of  China's  International  Relations       19 

to  consume  the  increased  production,  and  an  outlet 
was  sought  in  foreign  trade  for  the  surplus  com- 
modities. 

Treaty  of  Peking.  After  China  had  been  humbled 
by  the  occupation  of  the  capital,  the  Treaty  of 
Peking  was  signed  on  October  22,  i860.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  terms  of  the  Treaty  of  Tientsin,  Kow- 
loon  was  ceded  to  the  British  government  and 
Tientsin  was  opened  as  a  treaty  port.  Foreign 
envoys  took  up  their  residence  at  the  capital, 
Sir  Frederick  Bruce  representing  Great  Britain 
and  the  Hon.  Anson  Burlingame  representing  the 
United  States. 

Painful  Lesson  Learned.  So  ended  a  struggle 
which  had  lasted  for  twenty-five  years.  The  Chi- 
nese had  been  forced  to  learn  the  lesson  that, 
whereas  formerly  China  dictated  the  conditions 
under  which  international  relations  were  to  be  car- 
ried on,  now  it  was  the  Western  nations  which  im- 
posed their  will  on  China. 

Burlingame  Mission.  In  1867  the  Chinese  gov- 
ernment sent  its  first  embassy  to  foreign  countries. 
This  consisted  of  three  envoys,  two  Chinese,  and 
one  foreign,  the  latter  being  the  Hon.  Anson  Bur- 
lingame, who  had  completed  his  term  as  United 
States  minister  to  Peking.  The  object  of  the  mis- 
sion was  to  win  for  China  more  favorable  treatment 
from  Western  nations,  and  to  represent  the  Chi- 
nese government  as  desirous  of  entering  upon  a 
course  of  progress  on  the  lines  of  Western  civiliza- 
tion.    Much  was  expected  at  the  time  from  this 


20  The  Emergency  in  China 

tour,  but  the  result  was  hardly  commensurate  with 
the  anticipations. 

Riot  at  Tientsin.  The  antiforeign  riot  at  Tientsin 
in  1870,  in  which  the  orphanage  and  cathedral  be- 
longing to  the  Roman  Catholic  Church  were 
burned,  was  an  evidence  of  the  great  cloud  of  ig- 
norance and  prejudice  which  still  blinded  the  eyes 
of  the  masses  in  China  in  regard  to  foreigners. 
The  rioters  were  incited  by  their  belief  in  the  ru- 
mors that  the  Sisters  of  Charity  were  in  the  habit 
of  kidnaping  children,  and  of  taking  out  their 
hearts  and  eyes  for  the  purpose  of  making  medi- 
cine! 

First  Imperial  Audience.  It  was  not  until  1873 
that  the  first  imperial  audience  for  foreign  ambas- 
sadors was  held  in  Peking.  Although  on  the  sur- 
face this  appeared  to  be  a  great  step  in  advance, 
yet  the  fact  that  the  audience  took  place  in  the 
"Pavilion  of  Purple  Light,"  a  hall  used  for  receiv- 
ing tributary  nations,  showed  that  in  reality  the 
pride  of  China  was  as  strong  as  ever. 

Dr.  Yung  Wing  and  the  Educational  Mission. 
One  of  the  first  to  see  the  imperative  necessity  of 
adopting  a  more  liberal  policy  and  of  learning  from 
the  West  was  the  late  Dr.  Yung  Wing.  He  re- 
ceived his  early  education  at  the  Morrison  school 
in  Hongkong,  and  was  taken  as  a  lad  in  1847  to 
the  United  States  by  the  Rev.  S.  R.  Brown.  He 
was  the  first  Chinese  student  to  study  at  Yale  Uni- 
versity, and  graduated  in  the  class  of  1854.  On  his 
return  to  his  own   country  he  at  last  succeeded, 


Review  of  China's  International  Relations       21 

after  many  disappointments,  in  persuading  the  Chi- 
nese government  to  send  a  party  of  young  Chinese 
boys  to  the  United  States  to  be  educated  in  the 
schools  and  colleges  of  that  country.  He  believed 
that  they  v^ould  be  the  disseminators  of  the  new 
learning  in  their  own  country,  and  that  much 
might  be  expected  from  their  influence.  Unfor- 
tunately for  the  experiment,  the  conservative  party 
in  Peking  becoming  alarmed  at  the  disastrous  ef- 
fects which  they  believed  would  result  from  these 
denationalized  Chinese  young  men  when  they  re- 
turned to  spread  radical  ideas  in  the  empire,  per- 
suaded the  government  to  recall  them  just  as  most 
of  them  were  on  the  eve  of  entering  college.  After 
they  reached  China  their  lot  became  a  most  un- 
enviable one,  for  they  were  treated  by  Chinese  of- 
ficialdom with  scorn  and  contumely.  Some  of  them 
survived  the  period  of  their  fiery  trial,  and  in  re- 
cent years  have  risen  to  positions  of  great  impor- 
tance— notably  Tang  Shao-yi,  the  first  Premier  of 
the  new  Republic,  Sir  Chentung  Liang  Ch'eng,  K. 
C.  M.  G.,  the  recent  minister  to  Berlin,  H.  E.  Liang 
Tun-yen,  ex-President  of  Board  of  Foreign  Af- 
fairs, H.  E.  Jeme  Tien-yu,  the  ''Father  of  railways 
in  China,"  Liu  Yuk-lin,  Minister  in  London,  and 
Tong  Kaison,  representative  of  China  at  the  Hague 
Conference. 

Reforms  after  War  with  France.  After  the  war 
with  France  (1884-5),  there  were  signs  of  a  more 
progressive  policy.  There  was  a  further  extension 
of  the   telegraph   system    and   a   modification   was 


22  The  Emergency  in  China 

introduced  in  the  time-honored  system  of  govern- 
ment examinations.^  Originally  confined  entirely 
to  the  classics,  an  attempt  was  now  made  to  add 
mathematics  and  elementary  science.  Owing  to  the 
fact  that  the  literary  chancellors  who  conducted 
the  examinations  were  themselves  ignorant  of  these' 
subjects,  the  reform  was  more  on  paper  than  a 
reality.  As  may  well  be  imagined,  this  innova- 
tion was  exceedingly  unpopular  with  the  literati, 
a  class  which  up  to  a  recent  date  has  been  the  back- 
bone of  conservatism  in  the  country.  They  did  not 
want  the  introduction  of  new  knowledge  and  were 
thoroughly  convinced  that  their  own  ancient  books 
contained  all  the  wisdom  that  was  of  real  value. 

Yangtze  Riots.  The  riots  against  foreigners 
along  the  Yangtze  River  in  1891  were  largely  in- 
cited by  this  class.  For  a  short  time  central  China 
was  the  scene  of  acts  of  violence  and  incendiarism, 
two  British  subjects,  one  a  missionary  and  one  an 
officer  of  the  maritime  customs,  were  murdered,  and 
much  damage  was  done  to  the  buildings  belonging 
to  the  missions. 

War  with  Japan.  In  the  year  1894-5  China 
measured  her  strength  with  Japan.  The  cause  of 
the  war  was  a  dispute  in  regard  to  Korea.  The 
Island  Empire  had  long  been  anxious  to  obtain  a 
footing  on  the  mainland,  and  was  able  to  find  a  pre- 
text for  hostilities  because  the  Chinese  government, 

^  In  Chapter  V  will  be  found  a  full  account  of  the  old 
civil  service  examination  system  as  it  existed  in  China  pre- 
vious to  the  days  of  reform.     See  pages  143-150. 


Review  of  China's  International  Relations      23 

without  giving  formal  notification,  violated  an 
agreement  by  sending  troops  to  Korea  to  quell  a 
disturbance. 

Consequences  of  the  War.  The  consequences  of 
the  brief  struggle  were  for  China  disastrous  in  the 
extreme.  She  was  brought  under  the  searchlight, 
and  the  weakness,  the  ignorance,  and  the  corrup- 
tion of  her  government  were  revealed  to  the  world 
more  clearly  than  ever  before.  The  immediate  re- 
sults of  the  war  were  the  loss  of  Korea,  and  the  pay- 
ment of  a  large  indemnity,  but  the  subsequent  re- 
sults were  much  more  grievous.  From  that  time 
there  began  on  the  part  of  Western  nations  a 
strong  policy  of  aggression.  It  was  as  if  the  eagles 
had  gathered  about  the  carcass,  for  China  was  ut- 
terly helpless  and  unable  to  offer  resistance  to  the 
demands  made  upon  her. 

Foreign  Aggression.  In  1897  Germany  seized 
Kiaochow,  on  the  south  of  Shantung  Peninsula, 
taking  as  a  pretext  the  murder  of  two  German 
Roman  Catholic  missionaries,  in  the  southern  part 
of  the  province  of  Shantung.  Russia  viewed  this 
move  of  Germany  with  an  unfavorable  eye,  inas- 
much as  it  brought  another  European  power  into 
the  sphere  of  influence  in  northern  China  which  she 
coveted  for  herself.  Consequently  she  demanded 
a  lease  of  Port  Arthur  and  Talienwan  from  China 
on  the  same  terms  as  those  under  which  Germany 
held  Kiaochow.  In  the  surrender  of  Port  Arthur, 
China  lost  one  of  the  strongest  naval  bases  in  the 
world.     Great  Britain  put  in  a  claim  for  the  lease 


24  The  Emergency  in  China 

of  Wei-hai-wei,  France  claimed  and  obtained  the 
lease  of  Kwangchow  in  Kwangtung.  In  1899  Italy- 
demanded  the  cession  of  San-Mun  Bay  in  Chekiang 
Province,  but  at  last  the  Chinese  government,  de- 
spite its  former  ready  acquiescence,  offered  a  stren- 
uous resistance.  The  Empress  Dowager  who  had 
assumed  the  control  of  affairs  was  determined  to 
put  a  stop  to  further  filching  of  territory.  What- 
ever her  faults,  she  saw  that  something  must  be 
done,  or  the  days  of  China  as  an  independent  na- 
tion were  numbered. 

Reforms  of  Emperor  Kuang  Hsu.  In  the  spring 
of  1898,  the  Emperor  Kuang  Hsu,  powerfully  in- 
fluenced by  a  band  of  young  reformers,  the  chief  of 
whom  were  K'ang  Yu-wei  and  Liang  Ch'i-ch'ao, 
entered  upon  a  program  of  radical  reform,  for  he 
was  convinced  that  only  in  this  way  could  the  ship 
of  state  escape  foundering  on  the  rocks.  Among 
the  reforms  was  the  complete  revision  of  the 
ancient  examination  system.  Being  anxious  to 
modernize  China  without  further  delay,  he  also 
took  steps  to  reorganize  the  government,  doing 
away  with  a  host  of  useless  officials. 

Coup  D'Etat  of  Empress  Dowager.  The  Em- 
pj-ess  Dowager  alarmed  by  the  sweeping  changes, 
and  believing  that  the  foundations  of  the  Manchu 
dynasty  would  be  undermined,  seized  the  reins  of 
government  by  a  coup  d'etat,  placed  the  Emperor 
in  confinement,  and  instituted  a  reign  of  terror 
against  the  reform  party.  Reaction  became  the  or- 
der   of   the    day,    and    everything    reverted    to    its 


J^hoCograph,    Under-wood  and  Uttderuood 

EMPRESS  DOWAGER 


[p24I 


Review  of  China's  International  Relations       25 

former  condition.  The  Emperor  and  the  reformers, 
impressed  by  the  strength  displayed  by  Japan,  had 
been  anxious  to  see  China  follow  in  her  footsteps 
and  assimilate  elements  of  progress  from  Western 
civilization.  The  Empress  Dowager  became  the 
champion  of  the  old  conservative  party  and  strenu- 
ously opposed  all  innovations. 

Boxer  Outbreak.  It  was  largely  due  to  her  that 
the  Boxer  outbreak  became  possible,  for  this  move- 
ment could  never  have  gained  the  strength  it  did 
unless  the  government  had  secretly  sympathized 
with  its  aims.  In  that  wild  outburst  of  bigotry, 
frenzy,  and  ignorance,  of  the  year  1900,  we  see  gath- 
ered to  a  focus  all  the  elements  in  China  opposed  to 
progress.  Incited  by  acts  of  foreign  aggression 
and  spoliation,  and  convinced  that  foreign  inter- 
course had  only  resulted  in  the  repeated  humilia- 
tion of  China,  they  attempted  to  get  rid  of  foreign 
<iomination  and  to  throw  off  the  yoke  which  galled 
them.  In  their  blindness  they  thought  it  could  be 
done  by  the  Chinese  rising  in  their  might  and 
sweeping  the  Western  barbarians  into  the  sea. 
Root  and  branch  must  be  destroyed,  and  every 
vestige  of  foreign  influence  exterminated.  The 
storm  vented  its  fury  in  the  northern  provinces, 
and  Christian  missions,  because  they  were  asso- 
ciated with  foreigners,  felt  the  full  force  of  the 
blast. 

Confined  to  the  North.  As  an  evidence  of  the 
fact,  however,  that  the  leaven  of  enlightenment  had 
already  made  itself  felt,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the 


26  The  Emergency  in  China 

outbreak  was  confined  to  the  North.  Many  of  the 
officials  of  China,  especially  the  viceroys  of  the 
central  and  southern  provinces,  saw  with  clear 
vision  the  tremendous  mistake  of  the  North,  and  by 
refusing  to  join  in  the  movement  saved  the  nation 
from  utter  ruin  and  chaos. 

Reform  Movements.  When  at  last  China  had 
been  humbled  and  peace  restored,  the  program  of 
the  reform  party  was  again  adopted,  and  the  Em- 
press Dowager,  always  an  opportunist,  advocated 
the  very  measures  she  had  formerly  so  vigorously 
resisted.  Among  the  most  far-reaching  reforms 
was  the  abolition  of  the  ancient  government  exam- 
inations, and  the  introduction  of  a  new  system  of 
schools  and  colleges  throughout  the  empire.  In 
1905  a  special  Board  of  Education  was  appointed, 
and  the  new  education  advanced  by  leaps  and 
bounds.  Great  activity  was  displayed  in  railroad 
building,  and  in  the  development  of  new  industries. 
The  government  put  into  force  stringent  regula- 
tions for  the  suppression  and  final  prohibition  of 
opium.  Large  numbers  of  students  were  sent 
abroad  to  be  educated,  especially  to  the  United 
States. 

Steps  toward  Popular  Government.  By  an  im- 
perial decree  of  1908  a  constitutional  form  of  gov- 
ernment was  promised,  to  be  put  into  effect  in 
1917.  Later  on,  in  answer  to  frequent  memorials, 
the  date  of  its  adoption  was  brought  down  to  1913. 
During  the  revolution,  before  the  abdication,  the 
throne   agreed  to   the  immediate  assembling  of  a 


Review  of  China's  International  Relations      2J 

Parliament  with  legislative  authority,  but  the  offer 
came  too  late.  Advisory  Provincial  Assemblies 
were  opened  in  1909,  and  the  first  National  Assem- 
bly was  held  in  Peking  in  1910.  Each  city  was 
allowed  to  elect  a  Municipal  Council  to  act  as  an 
advisory  body  to  the  magistrate  and  to  relieve  him 
of  some  of  his  duties. 

Effects  of  War  between  Russia  and  Japan. 
Nothing  stimulated  the  reform  movement  more 
than  the  war  between  Russia  and  Japan.  The  Chi- 
nese were  chagrined  by  the  fact  that  they  were  on- 
lookers in  a  contest  for  the  possession  of  territory 
belonging  to  the  empire,  and  that  it  was  fought  out 
contrary  to  the  regulations  of  international  law  on 
neutral  soil.  They  were  also  astounded  by  the 
prowess  displayed  by  Japan,  and  realized  as  never 
before  that  the  yellow  man  was  a  match  for  the 
white  man  in  warfare.  They  were  convinced  that 
Japan,  in  learning  from  the  West,  had  adopted  the 
right  policy  and  they  became  eager  to  imitate  her 
in  this  respect. 

Influence  of  Japan.  The  influence  of  Japan  has 
been  incalculable.  For  a  time  the  Chinese  looked 
upon  Tokyo  as  a  Mecca,  and  thousands  of  students 
went  there  for  education.  At  one  time  the  num- 
ber reached  15,000.  Most  of  these  young  men  be- 
came inoculated  with  radicalism  in  the  extreme 
form.  The  reform  leaders  in  China  who  were  fugi- 
tives from  their  own  country  seized  the  opportunity 
of  influencing  their  minds,  and  men  like  Dr.  Sun 
Yat-sen   carried   on  an  active   propaganda   among 


28  The  Emergency  in  China 

them.  Thus,  the  Chinese  student  class  in  Japan 
became  a  hotbed  of  sedition,  and  returned  to 
China  with  a  firm  determination  to  drive  out  the 
Manchus  and  to  establish  a  republican  form  of  gov- 
ernment. Throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of 
China,  returned  students  from  Japan  founded  secret 
societies  for  the  carrying  out  of  their  program  and 
for  the  spread  of  revolutionary  ideas. 

Effect  of  Western  Impact.  Owing  to  the  steady 
impact  of  the  West  upon  the  East,  there  has  been 
born  a  national  consciousness,  previously  non-ex- 
istent. China  for  the  Chinese  has  become  the 
great  ideal  which  powerfully  stirs  the  hearts  of  the 
masses  in  China. 

Conservatism  of  Manchus.  Notwithstanding  the 
fact  that  the  Manchus  seemed  to  be  in  favor  of  a 
progressive  policy,  yet  in  reality  they  were  very 
fearful  of  the  movement  for  modernizing  China. 
They  yielded  only  reluctantly  to  the  demands  of 
the  people  for  a  representative  government,  and 
some  of  them  foresaw  the  inevitable  result — the 
overthrow  of  the  dynasty. 

Deaths  of  Emperor  and  Empress  Dowager.  The 
sudden  death  of  the  Emperor  Kuang  Hsu,  a  few 
days  before  the  Empress  Dowager  breathed  her 
last,  has  given  rise  to  many  surmises.  It  is  thought 
by  some  that  the  masterful  woman,  knowing  that 
her  own  end  was  near,  made  sure  that  her  nephew 
should  first  depart  this  life,  and  that  the  imperial 
power  should  never  revert  to  his  hands. 

Inefficiency  of  Prince  Regent.    The  succession  of 


Review  of  China's  International  Relations      29 

the  infant  Hsuan-Tung  was  most  unfortunate,  for 
although  the  Prince  Regent  was  well-meaning,  yet 
he  proved  utterly  incapable  of  filling  the  difficult 
position  in  which  he  was  placed,  and  the  imperial 
court  was  rent  with  factions.  More  and  more  the 
Chinese  became  convinced  that  the  weakness  and 
decline  of  China  were  attributable  to  the  inefficiency 
of  the  Manchu  government,  and  the  determination 
to  get  rid  of  it  increased  in  strength. 

Mistakes  of  Manchu  Government.  We  may 
summarize  the  mistakes  of  the  Manchus  as  fol- 
lows: I.  They  never  completely  identified  them- 
selves with  the  Chinese,  but  continued  to  rule  them 
as  a  conquered  people;  2.  They  were  always  secret- 
ly opposed  to  progress  and  only  consented  to  re- 
forms as  the  result  of  pressure;  3.  By  their  selfish- 
ness, corruption,  and  disregard  for  the  welfare  of 
the  people  they  lost  the  confidence  and  respect  of 
the  body  of  the  nation. 

Four  Nations  Loan  and  Nationalization  of  Rail- 
roads. Among  the  causes  which  precipitated  the 
national  uprising  were  the  Four  Nations  Loan  ^  and 
the  Nationalization  of  the  Railroads.  The  former 
was  unpopular  because  the  Chinese  feared  that  the 
nations  which  advanced  the  money  would  obtain 
internal  control  over  the  affairs  of  the  country.  The 
latter  met  with  disfavor  because  they  looked  upon 

*  The  Four  Nations  Loan  has  now  become  the  Five  Nations 
Loan.  Originally  the  loan  was  to  be  financed  by  British, 
German,  French,  and  American  capitalists.  Later  on  Russian 
and  Japanese  capitalists  were  admitted  into  the  group,  and 
the  United  States  withdrew. 


30  The  Emergency  in  China 

it  as  a  breach  of  faith  on  the  part  of  the  govern- 
ment as  it  necessitated  the  rescinding  of  conces- 
sions to  private  companies,  and  because  they  sus- 
pected that  the  real  reason  for  the  government 
wishing  to  obtain  control  of  the  railways  was  to 
use  them  for  military  purposes  in  keeping  the  peo- 
ple in  subjection.  Another  reason  for  the  unpopu- 
larity of  the  proposal  was  the  spirit  of  provincial- 
ism. Each  province  was  desirous  of  constructing 
its  own  railroads  and  of  making  out  of  them  what- 
ever profit  there  might  be. 

Success  of  the  Revolution.  In  the  face  of  the 
uprising  at  Wuchang  and  in  the  Province  of  Sze- 
chwan,  the  Manchu  government  showed  its  weak- 
ness. The  success  of  the  revolutionists  encouraged 
the  patriotic  party  all  over  the  country.  In  a  short 
time  all  the  southern  provinces  revolted  and  many 
of  those  in  the  north  followed  their  example.  The 
central  government  was  paralyzed  and  the  one 
strong  man  of  China,  Yuan  Shih-kai,  was  recalled 
from  retirement  in  the  hope  that  he  might  cope 
with  the  situation.  After  some  attempts  to  carry 
out  the  imperial  will,  realizing  the  hopelessness  of 
endeavoring  to  keep  the  Manchus  on  the  throne, 
he  urged  them  to  abdicate,  and  came  over  to  the 
side  of  the  republican  party.  In  the  uprising  there 
was  much  that  was  similar  to  the  French  Revolu- 
tion, but  on  the  whole  it  was  carried  out  with  much 
less  bloodshed.  The  student  class,  who  were  un- 
doubtedly the  instigators  and  prime  movers  of 
the    revolution,   have   been    successful    far   beyond 


Review  of  China's  International  Relations       31 

expectation,  and  China  has  become  a  republic  as 
the  result  of  the  upheaval. 

New  Chapter  in  China^s  History.  This  great 
people  now  enter  on  a  new  chapter  in  their  his- 
tory, and  a  most  critical  one.  The  sleeping  giant 
has  been  aroused  and  has  felt  his  strength.  The 
supreme  question  is  what  will  he  do  with  it?  Will 
it  be  for  the  weal  or  wo  of  mankind?  If  the  giant 
be  a  godless  and  soulless  giant,  he  will  be  a  menace 
to  the  future  civilization  of  the  world.  This  is  the 
real  yellow  peril. 

Call  for  Christian  Altruism.  In  this  chapter  we 
have  laid  emphasis  upon  the  attitude  of  China  to- 
ward the  rest  of  the  world.  It  might  appear  as  if 
our  object  had  been  to  whitewash  the  West  and 
lay  all  the  blame  for  the  misunderstandings  and 
conflicts  upon  the  proud  and  ignorant  East.  This 
would  be  manifestly  unjust.  Indeed  it  is  hard  to 
defend  from  an  ethical  point  of  view  much  of  the 
treatment  meted  out  to  China  by  Western  nations. 
It  is  doubtful  how  far  in  the  first  instance  we  were 
justified  in  compelling  China  to  enter  into  commer- 
cial and  diplomatic  relations  with  the  rest  of  the 
world.  Our  policy  has  been  largely  that  of  su- 
perior power,  actuated  by  the  principle  that  force 
makes  right.  It  has  been  the  aggression  of  the 
strong  upon  the  weak,  and  there  is  much  in  the 
story  which  is  sordid  and  unchristian,  and  much 
of  which  we  cannot  feel  proud.  The  result  as  we 
know  has  been  that  the  door  has  been  forced  open, 
and  the   question   arises   to   what   purpose?     Is   it 


32  The  Emergency  in  China 

merely  for  our  own  advantage?  Is  China  to  be 
exploited  in  the  interest  of  Western  nations  with 
a,  land-grabbing  tendency?  Are  her  resources  to 
he  developed  merely  for  our  own  benefit?  Is  she 
to  derive  good  or  evil  from  the  impact  of  the 
West?  We  have  helped  to  create  the  present  sit- 
uation, and  it  is  our  duty  to  see  that  we  give  of 
our  best  to  China.  Christianity  stands  for  altru- 
ism. Modern  diplomacy  and  commerce  are  too 
often  actuated  by  the  spirit  of  selfishness.  Which 
principle  shall  be  paramount  in  our  future  deal- 
ings with  China? 

IMPORTANT   QUOTATIONS 

The  extracts  at  the  close  of  each  chapter  are  intended  to 
indicate  various  view-points,  mainly  those  of  recent  articles  and 
addresses.  The  author  of  the  text-book  is  in  no  way  responsi- 
ble for  them,  and  they  do  not  necessarily  represent  the  opin- 
ions of  the  editors. 

When  we  study  China's  intercourse  with  the  modern  powers, 
as  recorded  in  the  nineteenth  century,  we  find  that  it  has  not 
been  a  happy  one.  Portions  of  her  territory  and  some  of  her 
most  valuable  ports  have  been  lost.  Important  places  like 
Shanghai,  Hankow,  Tientsin,  Kiaochow,  Macao,  and  Man- 
churia are  more  or  less  under  foreign  control.  China  has 
also  to  pay  enormous  indemnities  to  European  countries,  out 
of  all  reasonable  or  just  proportion  to  the  alleged  injuries 
inflicted.  From  her  painful  past  experience  in  international 
dealings,  China  has  come  to  the  only  conclusion  possible  to 
deduct  from  the  scandalous  wrongs  inflicted  upon  her, — that 
the  great  powers  are  seeking  to  get  all  they  can  from  her, 
and  she  also  realizes  perfectly  well  now  that  the  fact  of  these 
nations  being  civilized  and  so-called  Christian  does  not  insure 
either  right  or  just  treatment. 

— Cheng  Chang-lu,  in  the  World's  Chinese  Students'  Jour- 
nal, September,  191 1. 

There  are  many  who  place  the  most  implicit  confidence  in 
international  law,  but  these  are  as  stupid  as  the  individuals 


Review  of  China's  International  Relations    33 

who  depend  on  the  Disarmament  Society  for  peace.  If  coun- 
tries are  equally  matched,  then  international  law  is  enforced; 
otherwise,  the  law  is  inoiperative.  .  .  .  We  have  never  heard  of 
international  law  controlling  the  issues  of  war  between  unequal 
states.  .  .  .  China  is  not  on  an  equal  footing  with  the  West. 
This  is  perceived  in  the  fact  that  the  duty  on  imports  is 
fixed  by  Western  governments.  Not  so  in  China.  Merchants 
engaged  in  business  abroad  are  subject  to  the  laws  of  the 
country  in  which  they  reside.  Not  so  in  China.  Foreign 
commerce  is  confined  to  seaports  in  the  West.  Not  so  in 
China.  The  murder  of  a  foreigner  by  a  Chinese  is  a  very 
serious  matter,  but  the  killing  of  a  "Chinaman"  by  a  foreigner 
is  a  trivial  thing. 
— Chang  Chih-tung,  in  China's  Only  Hope,  written  in  1898. 

There  is  one  department  in  which  uniform  taxation  exists 
for  all  China,  namely,  in  the  Imperial  Maritime  Customs 
Service.  On  all  goods  coming  in  by  sea,  the  customs,  or 
tariff  duties,  are  the  same  for  all  China.  But  how  are  they 
collected?  By  the  organization  established  and  carried  on 
for  many  years  by  Sir  Robert  Hart,  an  admirable  organization, 
the  service  perfectly  performed  with  honesty  and  accuracy,  and 
the  receipts  applied  exactly  where  they  should  be  applied  in 
accordance  with  existing  treaties.  But  what  is  the  applica- 
tion? To  pay  the  interest  on  bonds  which  represent  debt 
China  was  forced  by  Western  powers  to  incur,  in  order  to  pay 
indemnities  to  Western  powers,  and  to  pay  the  Western 
powers  the  war  expenses  of  those  powers  in  carrying  on  war 
against  China.  No  Chinese  official  to-day,  or  at  any  time 
within  a  generation  in  China,  can  bear  to  think  of  this  uniform 
tax  for  all  China,  the  customs.  When  I  spoke  to  three  of  the 
members  of  the  present  government  about  this  tax,  my  refer- 
ence to  it  was  received  with  visible  impatience  and  dislike. 
They  simply  hate  tb  think  they  have  mortgaged  their  entire 
customs  revenue  to  pay  the  interest  on  debts  and  reduce  the 
principals  of  debts  which  China  incurred  in  consequence  of 
wars  which  Western  powers  waged  against  her.     .    .     . 

— President  Charles  W.  EIiot,  in  the  Journal  of  Race 
Development,  January,  1913. 

"Compensation"  and  "indemnity"  are  two  words  the  Chinese 
have  learned  to  hate,  and  some  day  they  may  build  an  immense 
navy  and  equip  a  large  army  to  interpret  these  words  in  the 
way  the  Occidental  interprets  them,  when  they  are  synonymous 
with  injustice  and  "grab."     .     .     . 

— John  Stewart  Thomson,  in  the  Journal  of  Race  Develop- 
ment, January,  1913. 


34  The  Emergency  in  China 

They  can  tolerate  anything  and  everything  but  further 
grabbing  of  their  land.  Therefore,  by  permitting  or  coun- 
tenancing these  powers  to  take  an  unfair  advantage  to  slice 
territory  from  China,  the  civilized  nations  might  drive  the 
Chinese  to  revenge  in  such  a  way  as  to  turn  what  is  soon  to 
become  a  great  "hive  of  commerce"  and  prosperity  into  a 
cursed  land  of  carnage  and  "Boxerism,"  as  well  as  to  en- 
danger the  peace  of  the  world  and  paralyze  the  advancement 
of  mankind ;  while,  by  the  exertion  of  a  due  amount  of  effort 
to  maintain  international  justice  to  China  during  this  period, 
they  may  enable  the  Chinese  people  soon  to  be  able  to  take 
care  of  themselves  and  to  contribute  a  great  share  to  the 
promoting  of  honorable  peace  among  nations,  as  well  as  to 
the  advancement  of  general  human  happiness. 

— Ching  Chun-wang,  Ph.  D.,  Assistant-Director  of  the 
Peking-Mukden  Railway,  in  the  Journal  of  Race  Development, 
January,  1913. 

The  evils  of  Western  civilization  have  already  found  their 
way  into  the  East.  The  pagan  elements  that  still  linger  in 
our  Western,  nominally  Christian,  civilization  we  have  forced 
upon  them.  Our  military  spirit,  our  rudeness  of  manner,  our 
contemptuous  disregard  of  the  rights  and  feelings  of  others 
who  are  less  aggressive,  our  habits  of  intemperance — by  these 
the  Western  nations  are  already  well  known  in  the  East,  and 
there  is  no  prospect  that  we  can  at  once  abate  their  evil  in- 
fluence. ^  The  open  question  is  whether  we  shall,  with  our 
worst,  give  our  best ;  by  the  gift  of  our  best  atone  for  the  evil 
we  have  done  in  sending  our  worst,  and  at  length  displace  the 
evil  with  the  good. 

— Ernest  D.  Burton,  in  the  World's  Chinese  Students' 
Journal,  September,  191 1. 


RESULTS    OF   THE    RECENT   REVOLUTION 


CHAPTER   II 

RESULTS  OF  THE  RECENT  REVOLUTION 

The  one  thing  certain  is  that  whatsoever  nation  en- 
ters on  the  path  of  revolution  in  our  own  day  it  will 
be  heir  to  all  our  forefathers  have  done  in  France. 
The  blood  they  shed  was  shed  for  humanity;  the  suf- 
ferings they  endured  were  borne  for  the  entire  hu- 
man race;  their  struggles,  the  ideas  they  gave  to  the 
world,  the  shock  of  those  ideas,  are  all  included  in 
the  heritage  of  mankind.  All  have  borne  fruit  and 
will  bear  more,  still  finer  as  we  advance  toward  these 
wide  horizons  opening  out  before  us,  where,  like  some 
great  beacon  to  point  the  way,  flame  the  words:  Lib- 
erty, Equality,  Fraternity. 

— P.  A.  Kropotkin 

Quick  Result  of  Long  Preparation.  The  revolu- 
tion of  China  was  accomplished  in  the  remarkably 
short  period  of  four  months.  When  a  sudden  cata- 
clysm occurs  in  nature,  we  know  that  secret  forces 
have  been  at  work  for  a  long  time,  and  so  it  is  with 
political  upheavals.  The  outbreak  was  bound  to 
come  sooner  or  later,  and  the  fact  that  it  took  us 
by  surprise  only  shows  that  we  were  ignorant  of 
what  was  transpiring.  On  the  surface  all  appeared 
calm  and  quiet,  but  revolutionary  ideas  had  been 

37 


38  The  Emergency  in  China 

working  for  a  long  time  in  the  minds  of  the  more 
intelHgent  part  of  the  population. 

Time  of  Outbreak.  As  is  well  known,  the  revolu- 
tion broke  out  on  October  9,  191 1,  before  the  ap- 
pointed date.  This  was  due  to  the  fact  that,  by  an 
accidental  explosion,  a  secret  bomb  factory  was 
discovered  in  the  Russian  settlement  in  Hankow. 
Papers  implicating  the  revolutionists  were  found, 
and  in  order  to  save  their  heads  they  were  com- 
pelled to  act  quickly,  and  to  start  the  rebellion  be- 
fore their  plans  had  been  perfected.  They  were 
successful  beyond  anticipation,  and  found  them- 
selves supported  by  public  opinion.  Very  for- 
tunately, they  were  able  to  induce  General  Li  Yuan- 
hung,  much  against  his  own  will,  to  accept  the 
position  of  leader.  He  soon  proved  himself  entirely 
worthy  of  their  selection,  and  showed  himself  to  be 
the  man  of  the  hour. 

First  Undecisive  Movements.  Owing  to  pro- 
crastination and  indecision  the  court  at  Peking  per- 
mitted the  rebellion  to  assume  formidable  propor- 
tions before  attempting  to  quell  it.  When  the 
troops  from  the  North  really  began  their  operations, 
it  soon  became  apparent  that  the  revolutionary 
forces,  largely  composed  of  raw  volunteers,  were 
no  match  for  the  army  which  had  been  trained  by 
Yuan  Shih-kai.  Although  they  fought  bravely  and 
were  inspired  by  true  patriotism,  yet,  as  is  usually 
the  case,  discipline  and  better  equipment  proved 
superior  on  the  battle-field.  In  the  latter  part 
of   October   Hankow   was   recaptured   by   the   im- 


Results  of  Revolution  39 

perialists  under  General  Yin  Chang,  and  destroyed 
by  incendiary  fires.  The  burning  of  this  immense 
city  was  one  of  the  most  tragic  events  of  the  revolu- 
tion. With  the  fall  of  Hanyang,  it  looked  as  if  the 
revolution  v^ould  be  crushed,  for  it  v^ould  have 
been  an  easy  matter  for  the  imperialists  to  have 
driven  General  Li  and  his  forces  out  of  Wuchang. 

Spread  of  Revolution.  In  the  meantime,  how- 
ever, the  revolution  had  spread  all  over  the  country, 
and  city  after  city  went  over,  for  the  most  part  with- 
out serious  resistance,  to  the  side  of  those  who  were 
bent  on  the  overthrow  of  the  Manchus.  Fourteen 
out  of  the  eighteen  provinces  declared  themselves 
in  favor  of  the  establishment  of  a  republican  form 
of  government.  As  an  offset  to  the  fall  of  Hanyang, 
Nanking  after  some  serious  fighting  was  taken  by 
the  army  of  the  revolution,  and  was  made  the 
capital  of  the  new  government. 

Reappearance  of  Dr.  Sun  Yat-sen.  At  the 
psychological  moment,  the  great  reformer.  Dr.  Sun 
Yat-sen,  arrived  in  China  and  was  inaugurated  on 
January  i,  1912,  as  the  first  President  of  the  pro- 
visional government  of  the  new  republic.  The  man 
who  had  spent  his  life  in  plotting  for  the  liberation 
of  his  country  from  the  rule  of  the  Manchus,  who 
had  been  exiled  with  a  great  price  on  his  head,  and 
who  had  undergone  innumerable  hardships  and 
dangers,  appeared  on  the  scene  to  see  the  success 
of  his  lifelong  endeavors.  The  most  hated  enemy 
of  the  Manchu  dynasty  came  back  to  triumph  ovef 
its  downfall. 


40  The  Emergency  in  China 

Sketch  of  His  Career.  The  story  of  Dr.  Sun  Yat- 
sen  reads  like  a  romance.  He  began  his  career  as 
a  medical  student  at  Hongkong  in  the  College  of 
Medicine.  Dr.  Cantlie,  the  Dean  from  1889  to 
1896,  was  much  impressed  by  him,  and  in  the 
biography  recently  written  speaks  of  him  as  "a 
nature  that  draws  men's  regards  towards  him  and 
makes  them  ready  to  serve  him  at  the  operating 
table  or  on  the  battle-field;  an  unexplainable  in- 
fluence, a  magnetism  which  prevails  and  finds  its 
expression  in  attracting  men  to  his  side."  He  be- 
came the  founder  of  the  Ko  Ming  Tang  (Revolu- 
tionary Society),  and,  after  an  unsuccessful  at- 
tempt at  revolution  in  Canton,  was  forced  to  flee 
the  country.  While  in  England  he  was  kidnaped 
by  the  Chinese  officials  and  locked  up  in  their  Le- 
gation. Through  the  efforts  of  his  friend  Dr.  Cant- 
lie  he  regained  his  liberty  and  then  traveled  about 
from  place  to  place  gathering  funds  from  his  coun- 
trymen scattered  over  the  world  and  laying  plots 
for  the  revolution.  His  undoubted  courage,  mod- 
esty, patriotism,  sincerity,  and  intelligence  have 
made  him  trusted  and  looked  up  to  by  all  his  com- 
patriots who  were  hoping  for  a  better  day  for  their 
country.  What  greater  contrast  could  there  be 
than  Dr.  Sun,  the  arch-conspirator,  and  Dr.  Sun, 
the  ex-provisional  President  entertained  at  Peking 
by  Prince  P'u  Lun,  at  a  feast  at  the  palace  of  one 
of  the  Manchu  high  officials? 

Yuan  Shih-kai.  The  Manchu  government  was 
obliged  to  recall  Yuan  Shih-kai,  who  had  been  liv- 


SUN  YAT  SEN 


Ip40J 


Results  of  Revolution  41 

ing  in  retirement  for  some  time,  as  the  only  man 
strong  enough  to  cope  with  the  rebellion.  Complete 
power  was  vested  in  his  hands,  and  for  a  time  he 
attempted  to  bolster  up  the  tottering  dynasty.  His 
greatest  difficulty  was  lack  of  funds,  for  he  found  it 
impossible  after  all  the  foreign  powers  had  declared 
their  neutrality  to  raise  a  loan  for  the  support  of 
the  northern  army.  He  was  sagacious  enough  to 
see  that  he  was  dealing  with  a  revolutionary  move- 
ment which  could  not  be  suppressed  by  mere  force. 
As  supreme  commander  of  the  northern  army,  and 
as  absolute  dictator  at  the  court,  he  might  have 
plunged  China  into  a  civil  war  which  would  have 
meant  years  of  bloodshed,  and  which  might  have 
resulted  in  a  split  between  the  North  and  the  South, 
and  in  all  probability  in  the  intervention  of  foreign 
powers  to  safeguard  their  commercial  interests.  It 
is  greatly  to  his  credit,  that  he  did  not  adopt  such 
a  course  of  action.  It  was  due  to  him  that  the 
advantages  gained  by  the  imperialist  forces  at 
Hankow  were  not  pressed,  and  that  the  troops  were 
withdrawn.  He  probably  felt  that  the  burning  of 
Hankow  by  the  imperialist  army  had  been  a  terrible 
mistake,  and  had  only  increased  the  animosity  in 
the  minds  of  the  Chinese  against  the  old  regime. 

Peace  Negotiations.  Seeing  that  the  only  hope 
of  peace  for  his  distracted  country  lay  in  compro- 
mise, he  consented  to  enter  into  negotiations  with 
the  revolutionary  government.  Tang  Shao-yi  was 
sent  as  his  representative  to  Shanghai  to  meet  Dr. 
Wu  Ting-fang,  and  on  December  18,  191 1,  the  peace 


42  The  Emergency  in  China 

conference  began.  After  long  consultation,  and  in 
spite  of  great  reluctance  on  the  part  of  Yuan  Shih- 
kai,  the  chief  demands  of  the  republican  party  were 
conceded. 

Election  of  Yuan  Shih-kai  as  President.  In  order 
to  cement  the  North  and  the  South  more  firmly  to- 
gether, President  Sun  Yat-sen  decided  to  retire 
from  office  in  favor  of  Yuan  Shih-kai,  who  was  duly 
elected  by  the  National  Assembly  in  session  at 
Nanking.  Probably  at  the  suggestion  of  Yuan 
Shih-kai,  the  Manchu  dynasty  finally  decided  to 
abdicate,  and  favorable  conditions  as  to  pensions, 
dignities,  and  titles  were  guaranteed  to  the  imperial 
house.  The  following  is  the  text  of  one  of  the  edicts 
issued  by  the  Empress  Dowager: 

Edict  of  Abdication.  "To-day  the  people  of  the 
whole  Empire  have  their  minds  bent  upon  a  Re- 
public, the  southern  provinces  having  initiated  the 
movement,  and  the  northern  generals  having  sub- 
sequently supported  it.  The  will  of  Providence  is 
clear,  and  the  people's  wishes  are  plain.  How  could 
I,  for  the  sake  of  the  glory  and  the  honor  of  one 
family,  oppose  the  wishes  of  teeming  millions? 
Wherefore  I,  with  the  Emperor,  decide  that  the  form 
of  government  in  China  shall  be  a  Constitutional 
Republic,  to  comfort  the  longing  of  all  within  the 
Empire  and  to  act  in  harmony  with  the  ancient 
sages,  who  regarded  the  throne  as  a  public 
heritage." 

Presidential  Oath.  Yuan  was  prevented  from 
coming  to  Nanking  for  his  inauguration,  owing  to  a 


Results  of  Revolution  43 

mutiny  among  the  troops  in  Peking,  and  the 
oath  of  office  was  taken  in  the  old  capital.  Ac- 
cordingly on  March  10,  1912,  he  took  the  follow- 
ing oath  :  ''Since  the  Republic  has  been  established, 
many  works  have  now  to  be  performed.  I  shall 
endeavor  faithfully  to  develop  the  Republic,  to 
sweep  away  the  disadvantages  attached  to  absolute 
monarchy,  to  observe  the  laws  of  the  Constitution, 
to  increase  the  welfare  of  the  country,  to  cement 
together  a  strong  nation  which  shall  embrace  all 
five  races.  When  the  National  Assembly  elects  a 
permanent  President,  I  shall  retire.  This  I  swear 
before  the  Chinese  Republic." 

Coalition  Cabinet.  One  of  President  Yuan's  first 
duties  was  the  appointment  of  his  cabinet,  and  thus 
what  is  known  as  the  Coalition  Cabinet  came  into 
existence.  His  idea  was  to  appoint  men  both  from 
the  North  and  the  South  so  as  to  do  away  with  the 
rivalry  between  these  two  sections  of  the  country. 
Tang  Shao-yi  was  made  Premier.  It  was  found  im- 
possible to  establish  the  capital  in  Nanking,  and  it 
was  decided  to  keep  the  seat  of  government  in 
Peking,  the  members  of  the  National  Assembly  re- 
moving from  the  South  to  the  North. 

Lack  of  Funds  and  Mutiny  of  Soldiers.  Since 
the  establishment  of  the  republic,  one  of  the  gravest 
sources  of  danger  has  been  in  connection  with 
mutiny  and  disorder  among  the  troops,  due  to  ar- 
rears in  their  pay.  The  new  government  is  con- 
fronted with  a  most  serious  financial  situation.  The 
revolution  has  been  a  costly  one,  and  the  finances 


44  The  Emergency  in  China 

of  the  country  have  been  so  greatly  disturbed  that 
it  has  been  impossible  to  pay  off  and  disband  the 
troops.  The  long  program  of  reform  promised  by 
the  new  government  cannot  be  undertaken  until 
large  sums  of  money  have  been  secured.  China's 
liabilities  in  the  way  of  paying  annual  instalments 
on  indemnities  and  the  expenses  of  the  government 
were  in  excess  of  the  amount  of  revenue  raised 
from  taxation,  and  it  became  necessary  for  her  to 
raise  a  large  foreign  loan. 

Five  Nations  Loan.  Negotiations  were  entered 
into  for  raising  the  Six  Nations  loan.  For  a  long 
time  there  was  a  deadlock  owing  to  the  fact  that 
China  was  unwilling  to  submit  to  foreign  super- 
vision in  regard  to  the  use  made  of  the  money 
borrowed.  Naturally  great  fear  was  felt  of  adopt- 
ing a  policy  which  appeared  similar  to  the  Egyp- 
tianizing  of  the  country.  She  has  been  compelled 
to  submit  to  a  certain  amount  of  supervision  owing 
to  the  urgent  need  of  funds.  The  unpopularity  of 
the  Four  Nations  Loan  was  one  of  the  causes  lead- 
ing to  the  revolution,  and  it  is  certainly  strange 
that  among  the  early  acts  of  the  new  government 
was  the  securing  of  a  loan  from  the  five  nations  of 
larger  proportions  than  the  one  formerly  contem- 
plated. Of  course,  it  was  unpopular  and  may  lead 
to  trouble  in  the  future,  but  the  necessity  was  so 
urgent  that  no  other  line  of  action  seemed  possible. 

Final  Arrangements.  The  negotiations  were  pro- 
tracted for  a  very  long  time.  They  have  been 
broken  off  and  resumed  several  times.    The  raising 


Results  of  Revolution  45 

of  a  loan  known  as  the  Crisp  Loan  only  helped  to 
complicate  matters.  Finally  a  contract  was  signed 
by  the  representatives  of  the  five  nations,  and 
by  the  Premier  and  the  Ministers  of  the  Board 
of  Foreign  Affairs  and  the  Ministry  of  Finance. 
The  amount  of  the  loan  was  $125,000,000.  The 
funds  were  to  be  used  for  seven  purposes:  i.  The 
liabilities  of  the  Chinese  government;  2.  The  re- 
demption of  outstanding  provincial  loans;  3.  The 
payment  of  losses  arising  from  the  Revolution ; 
4.  The  disbandment  of  troops ;  5.  The  redemption  of 
other  specified  provincial  liabilities ;  6.  The  current 
expenses ;  7.  The  reorganization  of  the  Salt  Admin- 
istration.^ China  undertook  to  establish  a  Loan 
Department,  an  Audit  Department,  and  a  Salt  In- 
spectorate, in  which  three  foreign  advisers  were  to 
be  employed.  The  provisional  government  has  been 
established,  and  on  the  eighth  day  of  April,  1913, 
the  National  Convention  assembled.  Then  steps 
were  taken  to  adopt  the  new  Constitution  and  to 
choose  the  President  of  the  republic.  In  the  mean- 
time there  was  much  debate  as  to  whether  the  new 
government  would  prove  a  success. 

Outer  Mongolia  and  Russia.  On  New-year's 
day,  1912,  came  the  announcement  that  the  head 
of  the  Buddhist  hierarchy  in  Outer  Mongolia  had 
declared  the  independence  of  the  country,  and  an- 
nounced himself  as  autocratic  ruler.     Shortly  after- 

^  The  security  of  the  loan  is  the  salt  gabelle,  or  impost  on 
salt  in  transition,  salt  always  having  been  a  government 
monopoly  in  China. 


46 


The  Emergency  in  China 


wards  the  Russian  government  advised  China  that 
she  must  respect  this  declaration  and,  while  still 
exercising  suzerainty  over  Mongolia,  must  abstain 
from  sending  troops  or  colonists  into  the  country. 
On  April  9,  1912,  Mongolia  definitely  refused  Presi- 
dent Yuan  Shih-kai's  invitation  to  join  the  republic. 


On  November  3  of  the  same  year,  at  Urga,  a 
special  Russian  envoy  signed  with  the  Mongolian 
princes  a  Russo-Mongoliar  Convention.  The  agree- 
ment extends  the  amplest  privileges  to  Russian 
traders,  forbids  China  to  interfere  in  any  way  with 
the  administration  of  Mongolia  or  to  send  troops 
or  colonists  into  her  territory,  allows  Mongolia  to 
contract  treaties  with  other  countries,  subject  to 


Results  of  Revolution  47 

Russians  approval,  and  permits  China  to  retain 
suzerainty  of  Mongolia,  provided  she  first  recog- 
nizes the  Convention.  The  Urga  Convention  has 
raised  a  great  outcry  in  China.  Many  see  in  it 
the  deliberate  attempt  on  the  part  of  Russia  to 
gain  complete  control  in  Mongolia,  and  clamor  for 
war.  This  is  one  of  the  black  clouds  which  has 
gathered  since  the  inception  of  the  republic,  and 
apparently  the  beginning  of  the  new  regime  is  not 
to  be  free  from  national  humiliations  which  will 
sorely  try  the  hearts  of  all  sincere  patriots. 

Eastern  Inner  Mongolian  Unrest.  Eastern  Inner 
Mongolia  has  been  in  a  turmoil  as  well  as  Outer 
Mongolia.  This  portion  of  the  country  has  also 
attempted  to  assert  its  independence  of  China. 
After  some  fighting  between  the  Chinese  army  and 
Mongolian  raiders,  a  conference  was  held  at  Chang- 
chun, on  October  25,  1912,  and  China  extended 
the  olive  branch,  promising  various  reforms  and 
privileges.  Whether  Eastern  Inner  Mongolia  will 
follow  the  example  set  by  Outer  Mongolia  at  Urga 
time  alone  can  show. 

War  in  Tibet.  With  the  outbreak  of  the  revolu- 
tion, Tibet  saw  her  opportunity  to  throw  off  the 
Chinese  yoke.  Under  the  old  regime  the  mis- 
government  was  characterized  by  such  cruelty  and 
injustice  that  Chinese  rule  had  become  exceedingly 
unpopular.  The  Chinese  garrisons  were  besieged, 
and  compelled  to  retire  from  the  country.  In  June, 
1912,  the  Chinese  gathered  a  force  to  subdue  the 
country   and    10,000    men    were   dispatched    on    an 


48  The  Emergency  in  China 

expedition  into  eastern  Tibet.  A  strenuous  re- 
sistance has  been  made  to  their  advance,  and  the 
attempt  thus  far  has  proved  a  failure. 

Embarrassing  Complications.  On  August  17, 
1912,  the  British  government  presented  in  Peking 
a  memorandum,  protesting  against  Chinese  hostili- 
ties as  a  violation  of  the  Anglo-Chinese  Treaty  of 
1906,  and  calling  on  China  to  respect  the  status  quo 
as  Great  Britain  was  doing.  The  Chinese  replied  to 
this  note  after  a  considerable  lapse  of  time,  pointing 
out  that  from  the  Chinese  point  of  view  Tibet  was 
a  portion  of  the  Chinese  Empire  and  hence  natur- 
ally belongs  to  the  Republic,  and  that  she  claims 
a  right  to  maintain  her  sovereignty  over  it.  The 
Tibetans  have  declared  their  independence  under 
the  rule  of  the  Dalai  Lama  and  have  already  entered 
into  a  treaty  with  Outer  Mongolia,  whereby  both 
countries  agree  to  become  allies.  It  is  most  un- 
fortunate that  the  new  republic  should  be  called 
upon  to  enter  on  a  course  of  hostilities  against  these 
outlying  dependencies,  especially  at  a  time  when 
her  finances  are  strained,  and  she  has  so  many  in- 
ternal problems  to  solve. 

Russian  and  Japanese  Hold  on  Manchuria.  Af- 
fairs in  Manchuria  remain  in  a  very  unsatisfactory 
condition.  Although  China  retains  her  sovereignty, 
Russia  and  Japan  continue  to  strengthen  their  hold 
on  the  country.  These  two  nations  have  entered 
into  an  agreement  by  which  their  claims  have  been 
adjusted,  and  by  which  each  can  go  on  with  its 
policy  of  aggrandizement  at  the  expense  of  China. 


Results  of  Revolution  49 

The  possibility  of  an  alliance  between  China  and 
Japan  seems  very  remote,  and  the  Chinese  begin 
to  look  upon  Japan  as  their  most  dreaded  enemy. 
One  of  the  results  of  the  admission  of  Russia  and 
Japan  into  the  Five  Nations  group  controlling  the 
loan  is  that  China  will  be  unable  to  use  any  of 
the  money  for  strengthening  her  position  in  Man- 
churia, or  of  doing  anything  that  might  appear  to 
threaten  Russian  and  Japanese  influence  in  that 
quarter. 

Prevalence  of  Disorder.  During  the  trying  and 
critical  period  of  transition  it  is  not  surprising  that 
there  has  been  a  good  deal  of  lawlessness  and  dis- 
order throughout  the  country.  Robber  bands  have 
seized  the  opportunity  to  plunder  and  loot.  In 
addition  there  have  been  attempts  on  the  part  of 
those  who  were  discontented  with  the  new  regime 
to  overthrow  it  and  set  up  a  government  for  them- 
selves. One  of  the  most  serious  storm  centers  has 
been  in  Wuchang.  Two  officers  of  high  standing, 
Huang  Hui  and  Chang  Chin-wu,  entered  into  a  plot 
against  the  Vice-President,  General  Li.  The  Presi- 
dent, Yuan  Shih-kai,  invited  them  to  Peking,  and 
then  had  them  arrested  and  summarily  shot.  By 
his  firmness,  a  serious  outbreak  was  averted. 

Political  Parties.  In  some  places  it  has  been 
necessary  to  institute  a  reign  of  military  despotism. 
Among  the  revolutionists  there  have  been  serious 
factions  and  a  great  lack  of  unity.  The  two  prin- 
cipal political  parties  are  the  Kuo  Ming  Tang  or 
the  radicals,  and  the  Kung  Ho  Tang  or  the  con- 


50  The  Emergency  in  China 

servatives.  At  first  the  members  of  the  Tung 
Meng  Hui^  tried  to  dominate  everything,  and  at 
Peking  blocked  all  legislation  of  which  they  did 
not  approve.  They  were  brought  to  their  senses 
when  the  military  governors  of  the  provinces  tele- 
graphed to  them,  threatening  that  if  they  did  not 
behave  themselves  force  would  be  used. 

Foreign  Advisers.  The  new  government  has 
recognized  the  necessity  of  securing  the  best  ex- 
pert advice  on  the  many  problems  by  which  they 
are  confronted.  The  President,  Yuan  Shih-kai, 
secured  the  appointment  of  Dr.  G.  E.  Morrison, 
formerly  Peking  correspondent  of  the  London 
Times,  as  Political  Adviser.  The  choice  was  a  wise 
one,  and  will  probably  prove  of  great  benefit  to 
China.  Professor  Frank  J.  Goodnow,  of  Columbia 
University,  New  York  City,  has  been  appointed 
Expert  Legal  Adviser  for  framing  the  new  Con- 
stitution, because  of  his  intimate  knowledge  of  the 
Constitution  of  the  United  States  and  that  of 
France. 

Constructive  Work.  The  National  Council  im- 
mediately after  the  revolution  was  busy  with 
various  measures.  A  Provisional  Constitution  was 
drawn  up,  a  Penal  Code  promulgated,  the  Gregorian 
calendar  adopted,  and  the  Parliament  Regulation 
Bill  and  the  Franchise  Bill  passed. 

Progress  and  Retrogression.  The  primary  elec- 
tions began  to  be  held  early  in  December,  191 1,  and 

^A  party  which  has  since  been  absorbed  into  the  Kuo 
Ming  Tang. 


Results  of  Revolution  51 

Parliament  was  convened  early  in  the  spring  of 
1912.  During  the  last  part  of  its  tenure  of  office 
the  National  Council  did  not  have  much  heart  for 
its  work,  and  the  executive  business  of  the  govern- 
ment proceeded  without  its  assistance.  The  Presi- 
dent was  obliged  to  rule  more  like  a  dictator  than 
like  the  chief  executive  of  a  democracy. 

An  Auspicious  Year.  China  was  blessed  with 
bounteous  harvests  during  the  first  year  of  the  new 
regime,  and  this  has  been  conducive  to  the  preser- 
vation of  peace  among  the  people.  On  October  10, 
1912,  the  anniversary  of  the  founding  of  the  re- 
public was  held  throughout  China,  and  from  the 
general  rejoicing  it  was  evident  that  the  better 
educated  classes  were  in  entire  sympathy  with  the 
ideals  of  the  new  government. 

Arguments  against  Establishment  of  a  Republic. 
Some  are  quite  pessimistic,  and  believe  that  it  will 
be  impossible  for  the  Chinese  to  organize  an  effi- 
cient and  stable  republic.  They  are  of  opinion  that 
a  great  mistake  has  been  made  and  that  it  would 
have  been  far  better  if  China  had  been  content  to 
establish  a  constitutional  monarchy.  They  advance 
the  following  arguments  to  show  that  a  republic  is 
impracticable : 

Size  of  Country  and  Population,  i.  China  proper 
has  an  area  of  1,532,420  English  square  miles,  and 
it  has  a  population  about  four  times  as  great  as  that 
of  the  United  States.  The  transportation  facilities 
are  not  as  good  as  obtained  in  the  United  States 
and  Canada  in  the  days  of  the  canal   and   stage- 


52  The  Emergency  in  China 

coach  period.  "The  party  machine  operating  under 
such  disadvantages  would  break  with  its  own 
weight.  There  could  be  no  intelligent  expression 
of  public  opinion.  Not  only  in  political  affairs,  but 
in  every  other  field,  it  is  impossible  to  develop  an 
alert,  quick-changing  public  opinion  in  a  nation  of 
over  four  hundred  millions  when  medieval  means 
of  communication  are  supplemented  only  by  a  few 
thousand  miles  of  railroad  and  telegraph.  China 
cannot  become  a  popular  republic  without  an  im- 
proved system  of  communication."  ^ 

Lack  of  General  Education.  2.  There  is  the  lack 
of  general  education.  The  masses  of  the  people 
are  not  intelligent  enough  for  self-government.  It 
will  be  a  long  time  before  China's  educational 
system  will  be  completely  modernized  and  some 
generations  must  pass  before  enlightenment  will 
be  disseminated  among  the  peasants.  The  struggle 
for  existence  is  so  severe  that  the  poor  have  little 
leisure  for  education.  China  cannot  afford  to  estab- 
lish a  national  system  of  education  which  will  pro- 
vide schools  for  all  her  children.  Compulsory  edu- 
cation will  not  be  possible,  owing  to  the  heavy  ex- 
penditure it  involves,  and  owing  also  to,  the  fact 
that  the  children  of  the  lower  classes  must  be- 
come wage-earners  at  a  very  early  period  in  their 
lives. 

Poverty  of  China.     3.    China  is  in  reality  a  poor 

^  Professor  Chester  Lloyd  Jones,  "Republican  Government  in 
China,"  The  Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political 
and  Social  Science,  January,  1912,  p.  2)Z- 


Results  of  Revolution  53 

country,  and  will  remain  such  until  her  tremendous 
economic  resources  are  unlocked  and  wealth  is  more 
widely  distributed  so  that  the  majority  may  possess 
more  than  the  minimum  of  subsistence.  Popular 
governments  are  expensive  governments.  Elec- 
tions cost  money  and  it  is  extremely  doubtful 
whether  China  at  present  could  bear  the  necessary 
expenses  connected  with  them.  In  all  probability 
the  affairs  of  the  government  would  soon  fall  into 
the  hands  of  an  oligarchy  who  could  manipulate 
them  according  to  their  own  Avishes.  Dr.  Arthur  H. 
Smith  says,  "They  may  have  something  which  they 
call  a  republic  and  which  may  ultimately  develop 
into  such.  The  intermediate  stages  must  be  those 
of  an  oligarchy  under  republican  form  and  titles."  ^ 

Size  of  Electorate.  4.  The  enormous  size  of  an 
illiterate  electorate  would  lead  to  corruption  far 
beyond  anything  with  which  we  are  familiar  in  the 
West. 

Loose  Federation.  5.  The  country  never  has 
been  closely  knit  together.  Each  province  has  been 
more  or  less  an  independent  entity.  The  policy  of 
centralization  favored  by  the  late  Manchu  dynasty 
has  not  been  popular,  and  it  is  extremely  doubtful 
now  whether  the  Chinese  will  favor  a  close  federa- 
tion. There  is  sectional  jealousy  and  much  bitter 
feeling  between  the  people  of  the  different 
provinces.  The  line  of  cleavage  between  the  North 
and  South  is  clearly  defined.  The  clan  spirit  still 
prevails,  and  until  a  stronger  national  spirit  has 
^Chinese  Recorder,  January,  1913,  p.  10. 


54  The  Emergency  in  China 

been  evolved  a  republican  form  of  government  will 
prove  impracticable. 

Arguments  for  the  Establishment  of  a  Republic. 

On  the  other  hand,  many  are  extremely  optimistic 
and  feel  sure  that  in  the  end  the  wonderful  experi- 
ment now  being  tried  will  turn  out  a  success.  They 
base  their  belief  on  the  following  considerations: 

Democracy  of  China,  i.  A  democratic  form  of 
government  is  not  a  novelty  in  China.  Mr.  H.  B. 
Morse  describes  the  old  government  of  China  as 
"an  autocratic  rule  superimposed  on  a  democracy." 
The  Chinese  have  always  exercised  a  large  amount 
of  local  self-government.  "American  governmer.t 
stands  firmly  on  the  town  meeting.  This  was 
generally  true  in  DeTocqueville's  time  (except  for 
the  county  system  of  the  Southern  States),  was 
passably  true  at  the  time  of  Bryce's  inquiry,  and 
is  true  to-day  of  the  country  village  communities. 
It  is  also  relatively  true  of  village  communities  in 
China  to-day,  following  the  precedent  of  many  cen- 
turies. The  village  elder  or  Tipao  is  appointed 
'with  and  by  the  advice  and  consent'  of  the 
villagers,  and  represents  them  in  all  official  and 
governmental  matters,  being  also  the  ordinary 
channel  of  communication  of  official  wishes  or 
orders  to  his  fellow  villagers.  The  American  citizen 
has  few  direct  dealings  with  any  but  his  township 
officials,  so  long  as  he  pays  his  taxes,  and  is  law- 
abiding,  and  officially  hardly  knows  of  the  existence 
of  the  federal  government,  unless  he  has  to  deal 
with  the  custom-house,  or  wishes  to  distil  whisky. 


Results  of  Revolution  55 

This  may  be  said  also  of  the  Chinese  villager,  and, 
moreover,  few  civil  suits  are  brought  before  the 
official  tribunals  in  China,  while  the  government 
exercises  no  control  over  distillation/'  ^ 

Absence  of  Hereditary  Aristocracy.  2.  China 
has  no  hereditary  aristocracy.  She  passed  out  of 
the  feudal  system  many  centuries  ago.  The  only 
class  which  has  enjoyed  exceptional  privileges  was 
the  literati,  but  its  ranks  have  been  constantly  re- 
enforced  by  those  of  humble  birth.  In  theory  the 
highest  office  in  the  government  is  open  to  those  of 
lowly  origin.  The  avenue  to  advancement  lay 
through  scholarship.  The  son  of  the  farmer  was 
eligible  to  compete  in  the  civil  service  examinations 
and  if  successful  might  expect  to  rise  step  by  step 
until  he  became  prime  minister.  Many  stories  are 
told  of  the  wonderful  achievements  of  poor  peasant 
lads  in  the  way  of  obtaining  high  official  positions. 

China  Always  Ruled  by  Will  of  People.  3.  China 
has  always  been  ruled  by  the  voice  of  the  people 
far  more  than  is  generally  supposed.  There  have 
been  no  representative  assemblies  in  which  their 
voice  could  become  articulate,  but.  nevertheless  it 
has  made  itself  heard.  The  officials  have  not  dared 
to  resist  strong  public  opinion,  and  have  been  com- 
pelled over  and  over  again  to  yield  to  the  desire 
of  the  people.  Strikes,  mobs,  and  rebellions  have 
been  of  frequent  occurrence,  and  have  generally 
been  effective  in  getting  unpopular  governmental 

^H.  B.  Morse,  The  Trade  and  Administration  of  the  Chi- 
nese Empire,  46,  48. 


56  The  Emergency  in  China 

measures  modified  or  repealed.  Even  the  emperor 
held  his  office  by  consent  of  the  people.  When 
he  proved  himself  incapable  or  tyrannical,  he  was 
often  deposed  by  a  successful  rebellion,  and  his 
losing  his  throne  was  regarded  as  a  manifestation 
of  Heaven's  displeasure.  Vox  populi  vox  Dei  is  an 
idea  quite  consonant  with  the  Chinese  way  of  regard- 
ing government. 

New  National  Consciousness.  4.  Furthermore 
two  forces  are  now  manifesting  themselves  which 
tend  to  weld  the  people  together.  These  are  the 
new  national  consciousness  and  the  fear  of  foreign 
intervention.  The  former  serves  as  a  strongs 
centripetal  force  in  opposition  to  all  centrifugal 
tendencies.  It  has  been  able  to  keep  the  country 
from  disruption  during  the  period  of  transition. 
"China  for  the  Chinese"  is  a  strong  enough  senti- 
ment to  overcome  sectional  and  factional  jealousies. 
It  has  held  the  North  and  the  South  together  during 
the  revolution  in  spite  of  the  fact  that  the  relations 
between  them  were  strained  almost  to  the  breaking 
point. 

Fear  of  Foreign  Intervention.  5.  The  fear  of 
foreign  intervention  is  a  constant  nightmare  in  the 
minds  of  the  Chinese.  They  know  that  if  a  stable 
government  cannot  be  established,  and  that  if  in 
consequence  the  country  is  thrown  into  disorder, 
there  is  danger  lest  Western  powers,  as  a  pretext 
for  interference,  seize  on  the  harm  done  to  com- 
mercial interests  and  the  destruction  of  foreign 
life  and  property,  and  they  are  anxious  to  suppress 


FIRST  REPUBLICAN  ASSEMBLY 
INTERIOR  OF  A  LEGISLATIVE  ASSEMBLY 


[p56] 


Results  of  Revolution  57 

all  disturbances  and  to  bring  about  as  quickly  as 
possible  the  reign  of  law  and  order. 

Precedent  of  the  United  States.  The  situation 
is  most  interesting,  and  we  wonder  what  the  future 
will  bring  forth.  It  would  be  foolish  to  prophesy. 
When  the  United  States  gained  her  independence 
there  followed  a  period  somewhat  similar  to  that 
through  which  China  is  now  passing.  The  con- 
flicting interests  of  the  colonies  and  their  loose 
federation  seemed  to  make  it  impossible  for  them 
to  become  a  strong  united  nation.  Many  predicted 
the  speedy  disintegration  of  the  new  republic,  and 
looked  forward  to  seeing  the  European  powers  step 
in  and  divide  the  spoils.  The  pessimists  were 
doomed  to  disappointment,  and  the  unexpected  hap- 
pened. China  confronts  innumerable  difficulties 
and  obstacles,  but  she  may  be  able  to  surmount 
them  all,  and  to  establish  a  stable  constitutional 
form  of  government. 

Interest  in  Political  Matters.  When  we  come  to 
consider  the  outcome  of  the  recent  revolution,  there- 
are  certain  results  which  stand  out  in  bold  relief. 
The  first  may  be  expressed  by  saying  that  Chinese 
society  has  become  political.  "Hitherto  it  has  lived 
from  generation  to  generation  by  custom,  with  no 
consciousness  of  political  aims  or  purposes;  nor 
has  the  government  itself  been  influenced  in  its 
action  by  definite  policies.  Secure  in  its  authority, 
it  has  selected  its  servants  on  the  basis  of  examina- 
tion tests,  reenforced  by  such  favor  as  promising 
candidates  might  be  able  to  obtain  through  bribes 


58  The  Emergency  in  China 

of  various  kinds.  Now  all  of  a  sudden,  the  political 
impulse  is  strongly  awakening  in  the  breast  of  the 
Chinese  people.  .  .  .  The  intellectual  and  re- 
sponsible among  the  Chinese  people  are  feeling  a 
deep  need  for  a  conscious  expression  of  national 
policy,  and  for  the  use  of  careful  reason  and  long- 
headed foresight,  as  well  as  calm  firmness,  in  the 
management  of  their  national  affairs."  ^ 

Demands  of  the  People.  This  accounts  for  the 
demand  for  parliamentary  government.  The  people 
were  not  satisfied  to  leave  the  administration  in  the 
hands  of  the  officials.  They  argued  that  all  efficient 
countries  are  provided  with  parliaments,  and  they 
pointed  to  Japan  as  an  example  of  a  country  be- 
coming strong  by  creating  such  an  institution.  The 
Manchu  government  yielded  reluctantly,  and  a  de- 
cree was  issued  on  September  i,  1906,  favoring  the 
adoption  of  a  constitution,  and  promising  to  permit 
the  people  to  participate  in  the  government.  By 
a  decree  in  September,  1907,  the  summoning  of  a 
National  Consultative  Assembly  to  be  known  as 
the  Tsecheng  Yuan  was  authorized.  It  was  to  be 
composed  of  delegates  partly  nominated  by  the 
government  itself,  and  partly  selected  by  the  Pro- 
vincial Assemblies.  Advisory  Provincial  Assem- 
blies began  their  sessions  in  1909,  and  the  first 
Tsecheng  Yuan  was  opened  in  Peking  in  1910. 

Real  Constitutional  Rule  Sought.  These  edicts 
did  not  meet  with  a  very  enthusiastic  reception  on 

^  Paul  S.  Reinsch,  Intellectual  and  Political  Currents  in  the 
Far  East,  225,  226. 


Results  of  Revolution  59 

the  part  of  the  intelligent  portion  of  the  people. 
They  wished  to  see  a  sovereign  parliament  or- 
ganized, and  looked  upon  the  advisory  bodies  as 
an  evasive  method  of  giving  them  the  shadow 
without  the  substance.  The  promise  of  the  grant- 
ing of  a  constitution  in  1917  and  then  in  1913  seemed 
to  be  indications  that  the  Manchu  government  was 
attempting  to  put  them  off  with  fair  promises  and 
was  not  really  in  favor  of  the  new  policy.  During 
the  revolution  the  Manchu  government  granted  all 
that  had  been  asked  for,  but  then  it  was  too  late, 
for  the  people  felt  that  at  last  they  were  masters 
of  the  situation,  and  could  carry  out  their  own 
wishes. 

Parliamentary  Government.  The  people  have 
perhaps  regarded  the  parliament  as  a  panacea  for 
all  their  ills.  They  forget  that  such  an  institution 
brings  with  it  "new  difficulties,  party  controversies, 
the  introduction  into  political  life  of  personal  ambi- 
tions, although  on  a  far  higher  plane  than  that  of 
court  intrigue.  So  the  difficulties  of  China  will  not 
vanish  by  the  creation  of  this  organ.  China  will, 
indeed,  have  endowed  herself  with  an  instrument 
that  may  be  used  toward  bettering  her  general 
condition.  But  the  real  work  of  reform  must  be 
done  in  the  administration.  There  the  confidence 
of  the  people  must  be  won.  The  corrupt  methods 
which  have  obtained  in  the  past  must  give  way  to 
strict  accountability,  and  to  the  maintenance  of 
just  and  legal  charges.  ...  If  these  institutions 
can  be  so  adjusted  that  they  will   constitute  the 


6o  The  Emergency  in  China 

expression  of  a  true  union  between  the  govern- 
ment and  the  people,  the  solution  of  the  other 
difficulties  and  problems  will  have  been  rendered 
far  easier  than  it  would  have  been  in  the  hands 
of  an  administration  working  at  cross-purposes  with 
an  independent  public  opinion."  ^ 

Transfer  of  Power  to  Young  Men.  Another  re- 
sult of  the  recent  revolution  is  the  shifting  of  the 
power  from  the  hands  of  the  old  official  class  to 
those  of  the  educated  young  men.  Under  the  old 
government,  for  the  most  part,  the  highest  political 
positions  were  divided  up  among  a  clique  who  ran 
the  government.  It  was  hard  for  an  outsider  to 
gain  admission;  in  fact,  the  only  method  possible 
was  by  the  expenditure  of  large  sums  of  money. 
China  was  in  reality  ruled  by  an  official  oligarchy, 
and  this  oligarchy  was  utterly  corrupt  and  rotten. 
At  the  present  critical  juncture,  the  educated  young 
men  have  been  brought  into  prominence.  They 
have  been  the  backbone  of  the  revolution,  and  are 
playing  an  important  part  in  the  new  provincial 
government.  Time  has  shown  that  it  was  im- 
possible to  convert  the  old  officialdom,  and  that 
even  those  officials  who  adopted  progressive 
measures  lacked  the  integrity  and  knowledge  to 
carry  them  out  successfully.  Frequently  the  re- 
forms which  they  advocated  were  merely  superficial, 
and  beneath  the  surface  the  same  old  evils  con- 
tinued.   Dr.  Wu  Ting-fang  at  a  banquet  of  students 

*  Paul  S.  Reinsch,  Political  and  Intellectual  Currents  in  the 
Far  East,  270. 


Results  of  Revolution  6l 

held  about  a  year  and  a  half  ago,  before  the  out- 
break of  the  revolution,  made  the  startling  state- 
ment that  there  was  no  hope  for  China  until  the 
government  was  in  the  hands  of  enlightened  young 
men  such  as  he  was  addressing.  He  was  thoroughly 
acquainted  with  the  old  officialdom,  and  he  knew 
that  a  process  of  complete  house-cleaning  must  be 
instituted  before  matters  could  be  improved. 

Their  Time  of  Testing.  The  young  men  of  China 
are  now  on  trial,  and  the  eyes  of  all  are  riveted 
upon  them.  That  they  will  make  mistakes  is  only 
to  be  expected.  Full  of  new  ideas  and  theories, 
they  lack  experience  in  statecraft,  and  it  will  take 
some  time  before  they  can  learn.  They  have  put 
their  hands  to  a  task  of  great  dimensions — nothing 
less  than  cleansing  the  Augean  stables  of  political 
corruption  in  China.  The  question  of  supreme 
importance  is.  Will  they  prove  themselves  to  be  men 
of  integrity  and  high  character?  Although  the 
transfer  of  power  and  responsibility  into  the  hands 
of  young  and  inexperienced  men  is  attended  with 
many  dangers,  yet  if  they  are  incorrupt  and  public- 
spirited,  we  may  well  believe  that  a  new  day  has 
dawned  for  China,  and  that  the  future  of  the  new 
government  is  assured. 

Rapid  Spread  of  Education.  We  may  also  expect, 
as  the  outcome  of  the  revolution,  a  more  rapid  dis- 
semination of  general  enlightenment.  Popular 
government  can  only  be  successfully  carried  on 
where  the  people  are  intelligent.  The  Chinese  are 
fully  aware  of  this,  and  as  soon  as  the  government 


62  The  Emergency  in  China 

has  been  organized  and  the  funds  secured,  we  may 
expect  to  see  great  activity  in  the  spread  of  educa- 
tion. In  a  future  chapter  we  speak  of  the  educa- 
tional reform  in  China,  and  here  we  need  only  say 
that  the  revolution  has  given  the  new  education 
a  great  impetus.  The  old  education  of  China  used 
for  the  most  part  the  deductive  method.  The  in- 
troduction of  the  scientific  inductive  method  will 
work  as  marvelous  a  change  as  it  did  after  its  in- 
troduction into  the  West  by  Francis  Bacon. 

Economic  Development.  Undoubtedly  one  of  the 
great  results  will  be  economic  development.  The 
Chinese  realize  that  the  poverty  of  the  country  is 
one  of  the  sources  of  its  weakness.  Under  the 
former  corrupt  government  but  little  was  done  in 
the  way  of  utilizing  the  great  natural  resources  of 
the  country.  Private  capitalists  had  little  oppor- 
tunity of  investing  their  money.  The  government 
was  anxious  to  retain  a  monopoly  over  all  the  mines 
and  restricted  private  enterprise.  Undoubtedly  one 
of  the  causes  of  the  revolution  was  the  economic 
factor,  the  desire  for  a  more  equal  distribution 
of  wealth  and  the  demand  for  a  share  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  resources  of  the  country.  The 
people  were  bitterly  opposed  to  the  granting  of 
concessions  to  foreign  capitalists,  and  clamored 
to  be  allowed  to  build  and  control  their  own  rail- 
roads, and  to  open  and  develop  their  own  mines. 

Religious  Liberty.  The  revolution  has  as  one 
of  its  fruits  the  removal  of  all  religious  disabilities. 
President   Yuan    Shih-kai   has   been   most   explicit 


Results  of  Revolution  63 

in  his  statements  on  this  subject.  A  meeting  of 
more  than  2,000  Christians  was  held  in  one  of  the 
churches  in  Peking  on  February  26,  1912,  for  the 
purpose  of  congratulating  the  country  on  the  rapid 
change  to  a  republican  government,  to  welcome  the 
new  President,  and  to  consider  the  question  of 
religious  liberty.  Owing  to  pressure  of  business 
Yuan  Shih-kai  was  unable  to  be  present,  but  he 
sent  as  his  representative  H.  E.  Yen  Hui-ching, 
who  addressed  the  meeting  and  spoke  as  follows : 
Position  of  the  Republic.  "We  can  thank  God 
that  such  a  body  of  Christians  of  every  denomina- 
tion in  this  city  has  met  together  to  welcome  the 
first  President  of  the  new  republic  and  to  rejoice 
in  the  comparatively  bloodless  outcome.  I  am 
directed  by  him  to  thank  you  and  to  tell  you  how 
much  he  would  have  enjoyed  being  here,  but  the 
demand  of  urgent  affairs  of  state  precluded  his 
attendance.  The  Christian  religion  was  brought 
to  China  fpom  the  West  more  than  a  hundred  years 
ago.  Until  recently  it  has  not  proved  successful  in 
reaching  the  people.  This  may  be  accounted  for 
by  the  fact  that  the  people  were  ultra-conservative, 
and  society  in  general  was  unaccustomed  to  new 
things,  or  that  the  message  of  the  foreign  mis- 
sionary was  misunderstood  and  to  a  large  extent 
a  wrong  interpretation  was  put  on  the  Church,  its 
object,  and  its  functions.  In  the  last  few  years, 
however,  our  educated  men  have  zealously  bent 
their  minds  to  the  study  of  Western  education  and 
have    found    out    the    intent    and    purport    of   the 


64  The  Emergency  in  China 

Christian  religion  in  its  aspects  of  mercy  and  educa- 
tion. The  result  of  this  investigation  has  also  been 
a  clearer  understanding  of  the  character,  genesis, 
and  motive  of  the  Church.  Heretofore  the  treaties 
allowed  the  Chinese  to  accept  Christianity,  but  now 
such  agreements  will  be  put  aside,  for  New  China 
will  grant  religious  liberty  of  its  own  accord  to 
all  its  citizens  without  the  treaties ;  and,  on  behalf 
of  the  President,  I  wish  to  say  that  certain  clauses 
will  be  introduced  into  the  new  Constitution  that 
will  allow  all  the  Chinese  the  freedom  to  worship 
in  their  own  way." 

A  Further  Declaration.  Shortly  after  the  revolu- 
tion. General  Li  Yuan-hung  gave  utterance  to  the 
following  sentiment:  "Missionaries  are  our  friends. 
Jesus  Christ  is  better  than  Confucius,  and  I  am 
strongly  in  favor  of  more  missionaries  coming  to 
China  to  teach  Christianity  and  going  into  interior 
provinces.  We  shall  do  all  we  can  to  assist  mis- 
sionaries, and  the  more  missionaries  we  get  to  come 
to  China,  the  greater  will  the  republican  govern- 
ment be  pleased." 

Value  of  New  Attitude.  We  of  the  West  realize 
the  importance  of  freedom  of  thought  in  religious 
matters,  and  know  how  closely  it  is  connected  with 
the  progress  of  a  country.  The  history  of  the 
inquisition  in  Spain  furnishes  us  with  an  example 
of  the  disastrous  effects  of  the  policy  of  limiting 
religious  liberty.  While  China  has  not  been  as 
intolerant  as  other  countries  in  questions  of  re- 
ligion,  yet   undoubtedly    Christians   have   suffered 


Results  of  Revolution  65 

certain  disabilities,  and  it  is  good  to  think  that  these 
will  now  be  removed.  The  attitude  of  Chinese 
officialdom  toward  Christianity  in  the  past  has  not 
been  friendly  and  they  have  made  a  distinction  be- 
tween the  ''people"  and  the  "Church  people."  We 
may  now  expect  to  see  this  harmful  division  dis- 
appear. 

Financial  Reform.  The  new  government 
promises  many  reforms,  and  we  are  filled  with  a 
sense  of  bewilderment  when  we  Contemplate  all 
the  things  that  must  be  put  right.  If  we  are  not 
mistaken,  however,  one  of  the  first  matters  to  be 
taken  in  hand  is  the  question  of  finance.  A  uniform 
and  standard  system  of  currency  must  be  intro- 
duced, and  the  taxes  must  be  levied  in  such  a  way 
as  to  bring  into  the  government  an  adequate 
revenue.  Such  matters  will  occupy  the  attention  of 
the  Tsecheng  Yuan  ^  for  many  months  to  come. 
Hamilton  saw  the  necessity  for  putting  the  financial 
credit  of  the  United  States  on  a  firm  basis,  and 
Americans  owe  him  a  great  debt  of  gratitude  for 
the  wise  financial  measures  which  he  introduced. 
China  stands  sorely  in  need  of  statesmen  of  similar 
spirit  and  ability  in  her  days  of  constitution  making. 

Outlying  Dependencies.  Another  very  serious 
problem  during  the  time  of  reorganization  arises 
in  connection  with  her  outlying  dependencies — 
Tibet,  Sinkiang,  Mongolia,  and  Manchuria.  The 
five  colors  of  the  new  flag  are  explained  as  meaning 
that  the  five  peoples  are  to  be  united  firmly  to- 
^  National  Assembly. 


66  The  Emergency  in  China 

gether  in  one  republic,  but  the  undertaking  is  one 
that  bristles  with  difficulties.  The  civilization  of 
Tibet,  Sinkiang,  and  Mongolia  is  much  lower  than 
that  of  China  proper,  and  it  requires  a  great  stretch 
of  imagination  to  believe  that  the  people  of  these 
territories  are  capable  of  taking  part  in  a  demo- 
cratic form  of  government.  Chinese  rule  has  never 
been  popular  in  them.  At  the  present  time,  as  we 
have  already  stated,^  there  is  a  revolt  in  Tibet 
against  the  Chinese  resident,  and  Mongolia  has 
attempted  to  set  up  an  independent  government. 

Imperiled  Situation  of  Manchuria.  As  regards 
Manchuria,  Russia  and  Japan  have  obtained  so 
firm  a  hold  on  it  that  it  would  appear  impossible 
for  China  ever  to  regain  full  control.  If  lost  to  her, 
one  of  her  richest  possessions  will  have  been  taken 
away.  It  will  require  great  wisdom  to  devise  a 
way  to  include  these  vast  dependencies  in  the  new 
republic,  and  to  bind  them  firmly  to  the  central 
government. 

Attitude  of  Western  Powers.  The  ultimate  out- 
come of  the  revolution  depends  not  only  on  China 
herself,  but  also  upon  the  attitude  of  Western 
powers.  Will  foreign  nations  intervene,  or  will 
they  allow  China  time  to  work  out  her  own 
destiny?  The  temptation  to  exercise  control  will 
be  strong.  International  ethics  are  as  yet  far  from 
measuring  up  to  the  Christian  standard.  The  loan 
negotiations  show  only  too  clearly  that  Western 
financiers  can  hardly  be  called  disinterested  friends. 
^  See  pages  46,  47. 


Results  of  Revolution  67 

There  is  altogether  too  much  indication  that  there 
is  a  strong  inclination  to  take  advantage  o£  China's 
weakness.  Something  more  is  sought  than  mere 
security  for  the  loan.  The  desire  to  exploit  China 
is  still  a  great  factor  in  the  situation.  It  may  sound 
like  an  exaggeration,  but  we  are  of  the  opinion  that 
certain  nations  would  prefer  to  see  China  remain 
Weak  in  order  that  their  own  selfish  policies  may  be 
carried  out  successfully. 

Christian  Policy  of  Non-interference.  We  would 
plead  as  strongly  as  we  can  for  a  policy  of  non- 
interference. We  base  our  plea  in  the  first  place 
on  the  high  grounds  of  Christianity.  Here  are  a 
people  awakening  to  national  aspirations  and  strug- 
gling to  improve  their  conditions.  They  are  eager 
to  win  for  China  a  place  among  the  progressive 
nations  of  the  world.  "We  who  are  strong  should 
help  to  bear  the  infirmities  of  the  weak."  The  West 
should  seek  to  help  in  every  way  and  should  sym- 
pathize with  the  endeavors  of  the  Chinese  to  build 
up  a  strong  and  stable  government.  If  we  are 
guided  by  a  self-seeking  policy  and  take  advantage 
of  China  because  she  is  powerless  to  resist  our  de- 
mands, we  shall  be  acting  in  a  way  that  gives  the 
lie  to  the  religion  we  profess. 

Danger  to  Be  Avoided.  But  we  may  also  base 
our  appeal  on  grounds  of  expediency.  We  have 
come  to  one  of  the  great  turning-points  in  the 
world's  history.  The  East  and  the  West  ha\  e  come 
face  to  face,  and  have  been  brought  into  close  con- 
tact, and  the  future  civilization  of  the  world   de- 


68  The  Emergency  in  China 

pends  in  no  small  degree  upon  the  sort  of  relation- 
ship they  will  establish  with  one  another.  The 
career  of  Japan  shows  us  the  latent  strength  of 
Oriental  peoples,  and  what  it  is  possible  for  them 
to  achieve  by  adopting  elements  of  Western  civiliza- 
tion. Asiatic  nations  have  been  inspired  with  new 
life  and  hope,  and  are  eager  to  imitate  the  Island 
Empire.  To  conquer  them  now  will  be  a  different 
task  from  what  it  was  formerly.  If  hostile  relations 
with  the  East  become  the  adopted  policy  of  Western 
nations,  the  world  may  see  wars  more  sanguinary 
and  conflicts  of  larger  dimensions  than  any  that 
have  taken  place  in  the  past.  It  is  impossible  to  be- 
lieve that  the  East  will  ever  finally  submit  to  be 
governed  by  the  West.  More  and  more  the  East 
will  demand  to  be  treated  on  terms  of  equality  and 
to  be  admitted  into  the  family  of  nations.  Ex- 
pediency dictates  that  we  should  enter  into  amicable 
relations  with  these  nations  and  place  no  hindrance 
in  the  way  of  their  natural  development.  If  this 
policy  is  adopted,  the  future  peace  of  the  world 
may  be  secured.  If  not,  a  struggle  too  dreadful  to 
contemplate  may  be  the  result. 

Christianity  Essential.  The  future  results  of 
the  revolution  depend  finally  upon  the  spread  of 
Christianity  in  China.  A  moral  and  spiritual  refor- 
mation are  the  greatest  needs  of  the  people.  China 
must  become  Christian  before  she  can  develop  into 
a  great  republic. 


Results    of    Revolution  69 

IMPORTANT   QUOTATIONS 

It  cannot  be  too  much  considered  that  democracy  as  it  now 
exists,  if  in  one  aspect  the  freest,  is  in  another  aspect  the 
severest  form  of  government;  less  than  any  other  form  does 
it  permit  the  natural  man  to  do  as  he  likes ;  and  a  community 
composed  of  individuals  who  have  no  other  ideal  than  doing 
as  they  like  will  not  only  refuse  to  be  governed,  but  fail  to 
produce  men  who  are  capable  of  governing. 

— L,  P.  Jacks,  in  the  Hibbert  Journal,  October,  1912. 

The  continued  national  existence  of  the  Yellow  Race  may  be 
regarded  as  assured.  But  that  the  empire  which  in  the  past 
fifty  years  has  lost  Siam,  Burma,  Assam,  Tongking,  part  of 
Manchuria,  Formosa,  and  Korea,  which  has  already  seen  a 
foreign  army  in  Peking  .  .  .  ;  whose  standard  of  civil  and 
political  perfection  is  summed  up  in  the  stationary  idea ;  which, 
after  half  a  century  of  intercourse  with  ministers,  missionaries, 
and  merchants,  regards  all  these  as  intolerable  nuisances,  and 
one  of  the  number  with  peculiar  aversion ;  which  only  adopts 
the  lessons  that  they  have  taught  her  when  the  surrender  is 
dictated  by  her  necessities  or  her  fears ;  and  which,  after  a 
twenty  years'  observation  of  the  neighboring  example  of  Japan, 
looks  with  increasing  contempt  upon  a  frailty  so  feeble  and 
impetuous — that  this  empire  is  likely  to  falsify  the  whole  course 
of  its  history  and  to  wrench  round  the  bent  of  its  own  deep- 
seated  inclinations,  simply  because  the  shriek  of  the  steam 
whistle  or  the  roar  of  cannon  is  heard  at  its  gates — is  a 
hypothesis  that  ignores  the  _  accumulated  lessons  of  political 
science  and  postulates  a  revival  of  the  age  of  miracles. 
— Lord  Curzon,  Problems  of  the  Far  East  (written  in  1896). 

Young  China,  as  at  present  constituted,  will  pass,  the 
shadowy  fabric  of  a  restless  dream.  An  inevitable  reaction 
will  restore  the  ancient  ways,  the  vital  Confucian  morality,  and 
that  enduring  social  structure  ^  whose^  apex^  is  the  Dragon 
Throne.  But  Young  China,  at  its  passing,  will  not  have  been 
in  vain.  Something  of  the  Utopia  of  its  visions  will  remain, 
to  renovate  and  modify  that  ancient  structure.  .  .  . 

But,  despite  China's  disastrous  experiences  of  the  past  fifty 
years,  and  the  fore-doomed  failure  of  her  present  political 
experiments,  it  is  difficult  for  any  student  of  her  history  and 
oeople  to  doubt  that  the  splendid  qualities  and  instinctive  com- 
mon sense  of  the  masses  will  assert  themselves  in  time  to 
avert  the  worst  consequences  of  Young  China's  headlong  icon- 
oclasm.  Despite  every  fresh  proof  of  inertia  in  the  masses 
and    incompetence    in    th^ir    self-constituted   leaders,    we   are 


70  The  Emergency  in  China 

impelled  instinctively  to  hope  against  hope  that,  from  out  of 
all  this  trouble  and  turmoil  of  new  forces,  the  ancient  weather- 
beaten  structure  will  presently  emerge,  modified  and  strength- 
ened, to  adapt  itself  to  its  changing  environment ;  that  the  col- 
lective intelligence  of  the  race  will  perceive  and  understand 
that  "all  laws  and  institutions  and  appliances  which  count  on 
getting  from  human  nature,  within  a  short  time,  much  better 
results  than  present  ones,  will  inevitably  fail."     ... 

Sir  Valentine  Chirol,  in  the  Quarterly  Review,  for  April, 
1912,  has  reproduced  the  substance  of^a  conversation  held 
with  Prince  Ito  at  Tokyo  in  the  spring  of  1909,  on  which 
occasion  the  Japanese  statesman  unhesitatingly  expressed  his 
opinions  concerning  the  destructive  ai^  disruptive  tendencies 
of  Young  China,  and  the  reasons  whjfch  make  it  impossible  to 
hope  that,  following  their  lead,  the  Chinese  people  can  ever 
hope  to  emulate  the  political  and  material  successes  of 
Japan,    ... 

"So  far,  also,  it  must  be  regretfully  confessed  that  there  is 
in  China  no  class  of  the  community  which  seems  competent 
to  take  the  lead  in  a  great  national  movement.  The  official 
class,  in  spite  of  some  brilliant  exceptions,  is  as  a  whole  no- 
toriously incompetent  and  corrupt.  The  merchants  may  be 
taken  as  the  nearest  equivalent  to  a  middle  class  in  China, 
and  in  business  they  have  acquired  a  considerable  reputation 
for  honesty  and  intelligence,  but  they  have  always  held  aloof 
from  public  affairs,  which,  with  the  Chinese  talent  for  special- 
ization, they  regard  as  entirely  outside  their  own  sphere  of 
activity.  The  great  mass  of  the  population  is  probably  even 
more  inert  in  China  than  in  most  Oriental  countries.  It  is 
thrifty  and  extremely  industrious,  and  has  been  accustomed 
for  so  many  centuries  to  be  treated  by  its  rulers  as  the  'stupid 
people'  that  it  may  be  held  now  almost  to  justify  its  nickname 
by  its  supreme  indifference  to  everything  beyond  its  own  nar- 
row horizon  of  narrow  toil.  The  young  students  who  have 
returned  from  abroad  form  a  very  vocal  and  not  unimportant 
body  of  agitators,  many  of  whom  are  animated  with  excellent 
intentions,  but  they  have  hardly  any  roots  in  the  country,  and 
they  can  hardly  be  said  to  form  a  class  capable  of  directing 
and  controlling  any  practical  course  of  action.  As  for  the 
Chinese  army,  it  would  seem  extremely  improbable  that  in 
such  a  country  as  China,  so  completely  bereft  of  all  military 
traditions,  an  army  could  be  organized  that  would  possess 
both  the  efficiency  and  the  discipline  required  by  such  an 
emergency."     .     .     . 

— J.  O.  P.  Bland^  Recent  Events  and  Present  Policies  in 
China. 


Results  of  Revolution  71 

When  a  year  or  so  ago  the  surprising  intelligence  began  to 
be  bruited  abroad  that  there  was  to  be  a  "republic"  in  China, 
it  is  probable  that  there  were  many  warm  friends  of  China, 
who,  like  the  writer  of  these  lines,  felt  and  said  that  the 
notion  that  China  in  its  present  state  of  evolution  could  be- 
come a  republic  was  "the  quintessential  essence  of  bottled 
moonshine.'*  There  is  still  substantial  truth  in  this  view,  and 
will  continue  to  be  for  an  indefinite  period.  But  in  the  light 
of  the  events  of  the  past  twelve  months  it  needs  modification 
of  statement  by  the  qualifying  clause  that,  although  the  Chi- 
nese cannot  possibly  have  a  "republic"  at  present,  they  may 
have  something  which  they  call  a  republic,  and  which 
may  ultimately  develop  into  such.  The  intermediate 
stages  must  be  those  of  an  oligarchy  under  republican  forms 
and  titles. 

The  pressure  of  a  common  danger  has  welded  the  Chinese 
into  a  theoretical  unity  never  before  known.  The  new  phrase, 
"Four  hundred  millions  of  our  brothers" — while,  as  yet,  only 
a  phrase — has  within  it  the  promise  and  potency  of  united 
action  such  as  China  has  never  experienced.  Once  gained, 
this  cannot  be  lost,  for  the  causes  of  its  evolution  are  deep- 
seated  and  permanent.  China  is  now  feeling  the  mighty  in- 
spiration of  a  great  hope. 

The  Chinese  have  accepted  the  conception  of  China  for  the 
Chinese,  and  as  never  before  are  suspicious  of  each  and  every 
foreign  design.  Many  manifestations  of  this  feeling  are  child- 
ish, while  others  are  dangerous  to  China's  best  welfare,  but 
they  show — as  nothing  has  ever  before  done — the  new  national 
alinement.  It  is  a  great  asset  to  young  China  to  have  before 
them  the  example  of  a  man  like  Dr.  Sun  Yat-sen,  who  has 
persistently  and  unselfishly  given  himself  to  the  deliverance  of 
his  country,  and  who,  having  received  the  highest  honors, 
resolutely  declined  to  keep  them.  Can  any  other  republic 
afford  an  example  like  this?  Dr.  Sun's  visits  to  Peking  and 
to  the  leading  northern  cities  have  brought  the  northern  and 
the  southern  parts  of  China  into  new  and  harmonious  rela- 
tions. Whatever  may  be  the  surprises  of  the  future,  there  is 
in  this  land  a  new  spirit. 

There  is  a  new  respect  for  personality  as  such,  a  conception 
for  which  we  have  until  recently  had  no  word,  nor  need  for 
any  word. 

The  potential  liberation  of  the  women  of  China  is  one  of 
the  greatest  facts  in  contemporary  history,  the  import  of  which 
is  beyond  human  estimation.  It  means  radical  changes,  far- 
reaching  and  permanent. 

— Dr.  a,  H.  Smith,  Chinese  Recorder,  January,  1913. 


72  The  Emergency  in  China 

We  shall  fail  to  grasp  the  fundamentals  of  the  situation  in 
China  if  we  suppose  that  the  triumph  of  the  re-volutionary 
cause  was  a  triumph  of  ideals.  So  far  as  leadership  is  con- 
cerned, it  was  that.  Those  responsible  for  the  outbreak— Sun 
Yat-sen,  Li  Yuan-hung,  and  their  comrades — were  consistent 
advocates  of  progress  and  reformation,  and  _  the  leaders  of 
government  to-day  are  convinced  believers  in  the  need  of 
reform.  But  the  rank  and  file  were  with  them,  and  were  as 
tow  to  their  fire,  from  merely  negative  causes.  They  were 
oppressed  and  afflicted  under  the  Manchu  rule,  the  soldiers 
were  unpaid,  the  people  were  overtaxed  and  underfed  and 
were  ready  for  any  enterprise  which  promised  relief  from 
present  and  persistent  ill.  .  .  .  So,  too,  the  common  people 
— farmers,  artisans,  and  small  shopkeepers — with  the  illegal 
exactions  of  the  tax-farming  officials  ever  in  mind,  had  for  a 
brief  season  the  dream  that  the  republic  was  a  happy  world 
in  which  government  was  carried  on  without  revenue  raised 
by  taxation.  The  result  was  that  for  a  while  the  taxes  did  not 
come  in,  and  the  new  order  of  things  in  Peking  was  brought 
almost  to  a  standstill  through  lack  of  the  all-needful  cash.     .     .     . 

— Rev»  Nelson  Bitton,  The  East  and  the  West,  October, 
1912. 

I  landed  at  Hongkong,  and  after  a  short  stay  there  went  to 
Canton.  .  .  .  Having  a  good  opportunity  there  to  ask 
what  is  for  me  a  fundamental  question  with  regard  to  any 
people,  I  asked  the  then  governor-general,  himself  a  soldier 
by  profession,  and  recently  in  command  of  a  division  of  the 
republican  army,  "Will  the  Chinese  coolie  make  a  good  soldier, 
brave,  obedient,  and  patriotic?"  ,  .  .  The  governor-general 
reflected  for  a  time,  and  then  made  the  following  answer : 
"The  Chinese  coolie  will  fight  well,  provided  he  knows  what 
he  is  fighting  for,  and  that  thing  interests  him."     .     .    . 

Think  how  little  the  Manchu  empire,  which  has  been  gov- 
erning China  for  centuries,  left  to  the  republic!  No  elements 
of  a  strong  government  were  transmitted  from  the  empire 
to  the  new  government;  no  army,  no  navy,  no  school  system, 
no  national  system  of  taxation,  no  courts  or  police  of  national 
equality.  Indeed,  the  Manchu  empire  transmitted  to  the  re- 
public no  government  organization  whatever.  It  was  not  a 
real  government  in  a  modern  sense.  It  has  not  been  for  cen- 
turies. If  the  republic,  or  the  revolutionary  movement,  had 
done  nothing  else  except  to  rid  China  of  the  Manchus,  it 
would  have  fully  justified  its  coming  into  existence.     .     .     . 

I  have  never  seen  anywhere  better  evidences  of  a  widespread 
and  intense  sentiment  of  patriotism  than  I  saw  in  China.   .   .   . 


Results  of  Revolution  73 

What  ground  is  there  for  supposing,  or  imagining,  that  a 
republican  form  of  government  can  be  set  up  in  China  and 
be  made  stable?  To  my  thinking,  there  is  in  the  quality  of 
the  Chinese  people  as  a  whole  strong  ground  for  holding  that 
hope.  The  Chinese  people  have  come  through  every  possible 
struggle  with  adverse  nature,  ^nd  every  possible  suffering 
from  despotic  government;  they  have  come  through  recurrent 
floods,  droughts,  and  famines;  they  have  been  subject  without 
defense  not  only  to  the  sweeping  pestilences  like  smallpox, 
cholera,  and  the  plague,  but  to  all  the  ordinary  contagious 
diseases,  to  tuberculosis,  and  to  all  the  fevers.  Yet  here  they 
are  by  unknown  hundreds  of  millions ,  tough,  industrious, 
frugal,  honest,  and  fecund.     .     .     . 

— President  Charles  W.  Eliot,  Journal  of  Race  Develop- 
ment, January,  1913. 

The  Canton  artillery  sang  a  rugged  song  of  Liberty.  It  is 
worth  quoting,  not  only  because  it  has  poetical  merit,  but 
because  it  shows  the  spirit  that  was  and  is  working  in  the 
souls  of  men: 

"Freedom  will  work  on  this^arth. 
Great  as  a  giant  rising  to  the  "skies, 

Come,  Liberty,  because  of  the  black  hell  of  our  slavery. 
Come  enlighten  us  with  a  ray  of  thy  sun. 
Behold  the  woes  of  our  fatherland.  •  '*' 

Other  men  are  becoming  all  kings  in  equality. 
Can  we  forget  what  our  people  are  suffering? 
China,  the  widest  and  oldest,  is  now  as  an  immense  desert. 
We  are  working  to  open  a  new  age  in  China ; 
All  real  men  are  calling  for  a  new  heaven  and  a  new  earth. 
May  the  soul  of  the  people  now  rise  as  high  as  Kwangtung's 
\        highest  peak; 
Spirit  of  Freedom,  lead,  protect  us." 

— John  Stuart  Thomson,  Journal  of  Race  Development, 
January,   19 13. 

As  they  appear  to  the  writer,  there  is,  on  the  one  hand,  a 
strong  body  of  conservatives  to  whom  the  new  order  of 
things  is  anathema  from  beginning  to  end.  On  the  other  hand, 
are  the  farmers  and  laborers,  who  make  up  some  eighty  per 
cent,  of  the  population,  and  for  whom  the  struggle  for  exist- 
ence is  enough.  A  good  harvest  or  food  enough  to  eat,  with 
security  in  which  the  fruits  of  their  laborious  toil  can  be  en- 
joyed, suffices.  The  former,  the  conservatives,  are  certainly 
to  be  reckoned  with;  but  the  latter,  the  great  mass  of  the 
populace,  have  always  been  followers  rather  than  leaders,  and 


74  The  Emergency  in  China 

there  is  no  reason  to  suppose  they  will  not  continue  to  follow 
the  leadership  of  whatever  party  is  in  power.  We  have  left, 
then,  as  the  real  leaders  of  to-day :  i.  the  new  literati;  that 
is,  graduates  from  foreign  universities  and  mission  or  govern- 
ment colleges,  and  the  whole  student  body,  male  and  female, 
to  whom  the  scholars  in  the  secondary  schools  may  be  added ; 
2.  the  majority  of  the  mercantile  class,  including  shopkeepers 
and  their  numerous  assistants ;  and  3.  a  considerable  part  of 
the  army  and  navy.  Most  of  those  who  make  up  this  minority 
are  enthusiasts  and  are  committed  body  and  soul  to  the  new 
order.  More  than  this,  they  are  carrying  with  them  the  chil- 
dren also,  and  these  are  the  makers  of  the  next  generation. 
Readers  and  thinkers,  editors  and  authors,  students  and 
scholars,  merchants  and  men  of  affairs,  stand  in  the  front 
rank,  whilst  behind  them  are  the  passion  and  ambition  of  the 
youth  of  China. 
— Rev.  G.  H.  Bondfield,  Chinese  Recorder,  January,  1913. 

Our  Ningpo  correspondent  writes : 

"The  republican  anniversary  has  been  celebrated  with  much 
enthusiasm  here.  The  principal  thoroughfares  of  the  city  pre- 
sented an  appearance  of  gaiety  probably  never  before  equaled, 
and  in  many  places  of  beautiful  effect.  In  the  evening,  lantern 
processions,  representative  of  the  commercial  guilds  and  prin- 
cipal schools,  paraded  the  streets. 

"One  has  to  go  but  a  short  distance  into  the  country,  how- 
ever, to  find  how  little  the  rural  population  has  as  yet  been 
affected  by  the  momentous  change.  The  overwhelming  major- 
ity have  not  yet  discarded  the  cue,  and  there  is  little  expres- 
sion of  enthusiasm  for  the  new  regime.  The  prolonged  stag- 
nation in  trade  has  been  felt  far  and  wide,  and  has  called 
forth  many  repinings.  Rumors  are  continually  recurrent  of 
imperialist  risings  in  distant  places.  The  country  folk  are 
evidently  slow  to  believe  that  the  Manchu  rule  is  really  at  an 
end. 

"Happily,  good  crops  have  done  much  to  mitigate  discon- 
tent, and  fairly  general  good  order  prevails  throughout  the 
district." 
*^News  item  from  the  North  China  Herald,  October  19,  1912. 

The  great  question  now  is,  "Will  the  republic  succeed?" 
The  answer  is  that  it  ought  to  succeed,  if  the  conflicting  inter- 
ests of  the  Japanese,  European,  and  American  governments 
and  commercial  bodies  can  refrain  from  creating  complications 
and  difficulties.  It  must  be  remembered  that  the  disappear- 
ance of  a  ruling  house  in  China  is  very  far  from  being  the 


Results  of  Revolution  75 

same  thing  as  in  Europe — as,  for  instance,  what  happened  at 
the  French  Revolution,  or  what  would  happen  in  a  highly- 
centralized  and  minutely  organized  country  like  Germany,  if 
the  Hohenzollerns,  Wittelsbachs,  etc.,  were  suddenly  replaced 
by  a  set  of  socialist-republican  governments  in  the  various  fed- 
eral states.  Chinese  dynasties,  and  particularly  the  Manchu 
dynasty,  have  practically  done  nothing  but  maintain  order  and 
collect  money.  The  virtue  of  the  Manchus  has  lain  in  the 
maximum  of  order  with  the  minimum  of  imperial  rapacity. 
Cities,  municipalities,  villages,  all  aggregations  in  China,  gov- 
ern themselves;  trade  governs  itself;  shipping  governs  itself; 
families  and  communities  govern  themselves.  The  money 
taken  from  the  people  is  in  no  way  spent  _  upon  the  people. 
Thus,  even  in  the  heyday  of  Manchu  rule,  if  every  mandarin 
in  the  Empire  had  been  suddenly  and  simultaneously  smitten 
with  paralysis,  no  great  harm  would  have  been  done  to  the 
general  activities  of  popular  life,  so  long  as  there  were  no 
breaches  of  the  public  peace.  Anarchy,  in  its  best  and  freest 
sense  of  *'no  government,"  exists  throughout  China ;  the  official 
body,  from  the  emperor  down  to  the  police  satellite,  might 
have  been  raised  into  space  like  a  canopy  or  a  curtain  from 
the  theater  of  popular  life  without  in  any  way  checking  the 
active  course  of  the  stage  performance.  In  fact,  the  suspen- 
sion of  "government"  is  often  an  unmixed  good  in  China;  for 
so  much  the  more  money  remains  in  circulation  unsqueezed 
from  the  people;  so  much  the  more  is  trade  stimulated 
through  being  unhampered  by  obstructions  and  exactions ;  and 
so  much  the  less  do  the  unpaid  police  and  soldiery  batten  on 
the  industrious  people. 

— Prof.  E.  H.  Parker,  World's  Chinese  Students'  Journal, 
November,  1912. 

The  people  are  looking  for  great  changes  along  all  lines — a 
new  government  of  the  people,  for  the  people,  and  by  the 
people — universal  franchise,  just  laws,  equal  taxation,  liberty 
of  speech  and  liberty  of  conscience — all  those  precious  con- 
comitants of  free,  popular  government  that  are  so  highly 
prized  by  the  free  peoples  of  the  favored  nations  of  the  West. 
In  short,  the  people  are  looking  for  a  new  heaven  and  a  new 
earth.  That  they  will  not  get  all  that  they  have  hoped  for 
goes  without  saying,  human  nature  being  what  it  is.  Whether 
or  not  the  failure  to  get  all  that  the  leaders  have  promised  to 
the  people  will  cause  widespread  discontent  and  reaction 
against  the  government  may  well  cause  deep  concern.  But, 
on  the  whole,  the  outlook  along  this  line  is  more  of  a  hopeful 
character  than  otherwise.     The  Chinese  are  a  patient,  peace- 


76  The  Emergency  in  China 

loving  people.  They  have  a  wonderful  genius  for  organization. 
They  are  noted  for  their  ability  to  affect  a  compromise  be- 
tween conflicting  interests,  and  to  reach  a  settlement  of  a 
given  situation  to  the  general  satisfaction  of  all  parties.  They 
will,  I  firmly  believe,  reach  a  fairly  reasonable  and  satisfactory 
solution  of  their  problems  in  due  course  of  time.  .  .  . 
— Rev.  a.  p.  Parker,  D.D.,  China  Mission  Year  Book,  19 12. 

Washington,  D.  C,  March  19,  1913. 

The  following  statement  was  issued  from  the  White  House 
to-day: 

We  are  informed  that  at  the  request  of  the  last  administra- 
tion a  certain  group  of  American  bankers  undertook  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  loan  now  desired  by  the  government  of  China 
(approximately  $125,000,000).  Our  government  wished  Amer- 
ican bankers  to  participate  along  with  the  bankers  of  other 
nations,  because  it  desired  that  the  good-will  of  the  United 
States  toward  China  should  be  exhibited  in  this  practical  way, 
that  American  capital  should  have  access  to  that  great  country, 
and  that  the  United  States  should  be  in  a  position  to  share 
with  the  other  powers  any  political  responsibilities  that  might 
be  associated  with  the  development  of  the  foreign  relations  of 
China  in  connection  with  her  industrial  and  commercial  enter- 
prises. The  present  administration  has  been  asked  by  this 
group  of  bankers  whether  it  would  also  request  them  to  par- 
ticipate in  the  loan.  The  representatives  of  the  bankers  through 
whom  the  administration  was  approached  declared  that  they 
would  continue  to  seek  their  share  of  the  loan  under  the  pro- 
posed agreements  only  if  expressly  requested  to  do  so  by  the 
government.  The  administration  has  declined  to  make  such  a 
request,  because  it  did  not  approve  the  conditions  of  the  loan 
or  the  implications  of  responsibility  on  its  own  part  which  it 
was  plainly  told  would  be  involved  in  the  request. 

The  conditions  of  the  loan  seem  to  us  to  touch  very  nearly 
the  administrative  independence  of  China  itself;  and  this  ad- 
ministration does  not  feel  that  it  ought,  even  by  implication, 
to  be  a  party  to  those  conditions.  The  responsibility  on  its 
part  which  would  be  implied  in  requesting  the  bankers  to 
undertake  the  loan  might  conceivably  go  the  length  in  some 
unhappy  contingency  of  forcible  interference  in  the  financial, 
and  even  the  political,  affairs  of  that  great  Oriental  state,  just 
now  awakening  to  a  consciousness  of  its  power  and  of  its  obli- 
gations to  its  people.  The  conditions  include  not  only  the 
pledging  of  particular  taxes,  some  of  them  antiquated  and 
burdensome,  to  secure  the  loan,  but  also  the  administration  of 
those  taxes  by  foreign  agents.     The  responsibility  on  the  part 


Results  of  Revolution  "jj 

of  our  government  implied  in  the  encouragement  of  a  loan 
thus  secured  and  administered  is  plain  enough  and  is  obnox- 
ious to  the  principles  upon  which  the  government  of  our 
people  rests. 

The  government  of  the  United  States  is  not  only  willing,  but 
earnestly  desirous,  of  aiding  the  great  Chinese  people  in  every 
way  that  is  consistent  with  their  untrammeled  development 
and  its  own  immemorial  principles.  The  awakening  of  the 
people  of  China  to  a  consciousness  of  their  possibilities  under 
free  government  is  the  most  significant,  if  not  the  most  mo- 
mentous, event  of  our  generation.  With  this  movement  and 
aspiration  the  American  people  are  in  profound  sympathy. 
They  certainly  wish  to  participate,  and  participate  very  gener- 
ously, in  opening  to  the  Chinese  and  to  the  use  of  the  world 
the  almost  untouched  and  perhaps  unrivaled  resources  of 
China. 


INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  DEVELOP- 
MENTS 


CHAPTER   III 

INDUSTRIAL  AND  COMMERCIAL  DEVELOP- 
MENTS 

The  triumph  of  the  industrial  arts  will  advance  the 
cause  of  civilisation  more  rapidly  than  its  warmest 
advocate  could  have  hoped  and  contribute  to  the 
permanent  prosperity  and  strength  of  the  country 
more  than  the  most  splendid  victories  of  successful 
war, 

— ^Babbage 

Material  Progress  a  Standard.  In  a  superficial 
way  a  country's  progress  in  civilization  is  measured 
by  her  material  wealth  and  by  those  things  which 
facilitate  its  production.  Accordingly  the  introduc- 
tion of  railways  and  activity  in  their  extension  are 
regarded  as  indicative  of  an  advance  in  civilization. 
In  the  recent  development  of  China  nothing  is  more 
remarkable  than  the  story  of  railroad  building. 
Thirty-five  years  ago  there  was  not  a  mile  of  rail- 
way in  the  whole  country.  To-day  there  are  about 
six  thousand. 

First  Railway  in  China.  The  first  attempt  at  con- 
struction was  made  in  1875,  when  a  few  foreign 
merchants  in  Shanghai  put  their  heads  together 
and   determined   to   see    what   could   be   done   on 

81 


82  The  Emergency  in  China 

modest  lines.  They  bought  up  land  for  a  road  be- 
tween Shanghai  and  Woosung  at  the  mouth  of  the 
Whang-poo  River,  a  distance  of  about  twelve  miles, 
and  the  line  was  formally  opened  at  the  end  of 
May,  1876.  The  Chinese  authorities  were  much 
opposed  to  the  innovation  and  claimed  that  they 
had  been  grossly  deceived.  Their  contention  was 
that  permission  had  only  been  granted  for  the  con- 
struction of  "a  road,"  and  that  all  along  they  had 
understood  it  was  to  be  "a  horse  road,"  and  not 
"an  iron  road."  After  considerable  friction  and 
heated  controversy,  the  foreign  merchants  were 
finally  obliged  to  sell  the  road  to  the  Chinese 
government.  The  rails  were  then  torn  up  and 
shipped  off  with  the  rolling  stock  to  Formosa. 
"Where  the  Shanghai  railway  station  had  stood 
there  was  built,  as  a  peace  offering,  a  temple  to 
the  Queen  of  Heaven."  Thus  ended  the  first 
chapter  of  railway  building  in  China.  The  objection 
of  the  Chinese  was  almost  entirely  based  on  super- 
stition. The  introduction  of  the  railway  would 
disturb  the  feng  shui^  and  this  would  undoubtedly 
lead  to  some  dire  calamity. 

Kaiping  Railway.  The  second  attempt  proved 
more  successful.  It  was  in  connection  with  the 
Kaiping  Coal  Mining  Company  at  Tongshan  in  the 
Province  of  Chihli.  These  mines  were  twenty-nine 
miles  distant  from  the  nearest  seaport,  and  the  con- 

^  Genii  that  control  winds  and  waters,  especially  subter- 
ranean waters,  according  to  superstitious  Chinese  views  that 
have  prevailed. 


Industrial  Developments 


83 


veyance  of  the  coal  was  attended  with  many  diffi- 
culties.    In  1880  a  small  tramway  of  seven  miles 


^'"ngkin^ 


.0     V 


UNA\N    ;KIAJNGSV    ;    y^^^^^ 


'  Tariff J^aff 

RAILWAY  MAP  OF  CHINA 


*^ 


"X-. 


KWANG   SI  ,^ 


Provincial  Boundaries 


ff^^j      Railways  OpeatoTiaffic 
V^,r         Failways  under  Construction 
Projected  Railways 
pToposed  Railways 


■■'■■■■ 


was  built  connecting  the  mines  with  a  canal  leading 
to  the  sea.     At  first  wire  traction  was  used,  but  in 


84  The  Emergency  in  China 

1881  a  locomotive,  locally  constructed,  called  "the 
Rocket  of  China"  was  actually  running  on  the  line. 
At  the  close  of  the  war  between  China  and  France, 
progress  was  in  the  air,  and  the  prejudice  against 
railways  began  to  weaken.  Out  of  the  Kaiping 
Tramway  grew  the  Kaiping  Railway.  The  road 
was  extended  from  Tongshan  to  Tientsin,  and  by 
the  end  of  1887  two  trains  a  day  were  running  be- 
tween these  places. 

Growth  of  Railways.  Such  was  the  beginning 
of  the  construction  of  railways  in  China,  and  it  has 
been  dwelt  upon  at  some  length,  because  the 
story  of  beginnings  is  always  full  of  interest.  From 
that  time  the  development  has  been  rapid  and, 
except  for  a  few  checks  now  and  again,  continuous. 
The  estimated  mileage  of  Chinese  railways  (includ- 
ing those  in  Manchuria)  open  to  traffic  was,  in  1908, 
3,000  miles ;  in  1909,  4,500  miles ;  and  in  1912,  5,886 
miles. 

The  Five  Systems.  For  the  sake  of  convenience 
we  may  divide  the  present  and  prospective  railways 
of  China  into  five  systems.  The  first  or  Northern 
System  includes  the  line  extending  from  Peking 
toward  Mongolia  on  the  northwest,  and  through 
Manchuria  to  the  northeast.  The  second  or  Central 
System  embraces  the  country  lying  between  the 
Peiho  River  on  the  north  and  the  Yangtze  on  the 
south.  The  third  is  made  up  of  the  railways  in  the 
Yangtze  Valley  itself.  The  fourth  or  Southern 
System  includes  the  lines  centering  about  Canton, 
Hongkong,  and  the  tributary  branches  in  Kwangsi. 


Industrial  Developments  85 

The  fifth  or  Southwestern  System  includes  the  rail- 
ways in  the  provinces  bordering  on  Burma,  India, 
and  French  Indo-China.^ 

Effects  of  Railways.  One  can  readily  understand 
what  a  tremendous  change  railways  will  produce 
in  China.  One  of  the  greatest  hindrances  to 
progress  undoubtedly  is  the  poverty  of  the  masses. 
In  the  densely  populated  districts  the  vast  majority 
are  very  close  to  the  border-line  of  starvation. 
When  the  usual  crops  fail  and  famine  occurs,  they 
die  by  the  thousands.  It  must  always  be  remem- 
bered that  agriculture  is  the  main  occupation  of 
the  people,  and  that  they  support  themselves  en- 
tirely from  what  they  raise  from  the  soil.  Railroads 
will  open  up  mines  and  render  the  development  of 
manufacturing  industries  possible.  It  will  in  time 
bring  about  a  great  change  in  the  occupations  of 
the  people. 

Purpose  of  Sun  Yat-sen.  The  Chinese  are  eager 
for  the  development  of  railways  because  they  have 
become  convinced  that  it  means  the  creation  of 
greater  wealth  in  which  all  hope  to  have  a  share. 
Economic  factors  always  play  a  large  part  in  the 
development  of  a  country.  Dr.  Sun  Yat-sen  is  so 
convinced  of  the  necessity  of  railway  building  that 
he  is  now  devoting  his  energy  to  the  organization 
of  the  Central  Railway  Company  of  China.  He 
hopes  to  be  able  to  borrow  large  amounts  of  capital 
from  Europe  and  America,  and  to  cover  China  with 

^  For  more  complete  details  relating  to  these  five  systems, 
see  Appendix  I,  p.  295. 


86  The  Emergency  in  China 

a  network  of  railways  in  an  incredibly  short  space 
of  time. 

Steps  toward  Unification.  Among  other  effects 
will  be  the  greater  unification  of  the  people  by 
breaking  down  barriers  of  separation,  and  making 
intercourse  easier.  In  the  United  States  the  people 
of  the  East,  the  West,  the  North,  and  the  South 
have  local  peculiarities,  and  we  can  tell  where  a 
man  comes  from  by  his  accent.  This  gives  us, 
however,  only  a  slight  idea  of  the  wide  chasm  be- 
tween the  people  of  the  various  sections  of  China. 
In  many  v/ays  their  characteristics  are  different, 
and  there  is  so  much  variation  in  the  languages 
which  they  speak  that  they  cannot  understand  one 
another.  The  people  of  Shanghai  laugh  at  the 
people  of  Foochow  and  say  they  talk  a  bird  lan- 
guage. At  St.  John's  University  in  Shanghai  the 
student  body  is  drawn  from  a  wide  area.  It  is 
absolutely  impossible  for  those  from  the  South  to 
understand  the  language  of  those  from  Central 
China,  and  when  they  converse  they  fall  back  on 
their  knowledge  of  English.  In  course  of  time  rail- 
ways will  have  a  great  influence  in  leading  to  the 
adoption  of  one  language  throughout  the  whole 
country.  Instead  of  dialects  and  variations  of 
dialects  incomprehensible  except  to  the  people  of 
the  districts  where  they  are  spoken,  there  will  be 
developed  a  form  of  Mandarin,  which  will  serve  the 
purpose  of  a  common  tongue,  and  which  will  be 
understood  by  all. 

Progressive  Benefits.     The  provincial  and  clan- 


Industrial  Developments  87 

nish  spirit  are  due  in  no  small  extent  to  the  lack 
of  intercommunication.  Railways  will  lead  to  the 
building  of  roads,  and,  after  roads,  there  will  come 
cheap  motor  conveyance,  and  China  more  and  more 
will  be  knit  together  until  she  becomes  a  united 
nation  instead  of  a  loose  confederation  of  provinces. 
Again  railways  will  enable  the  government  in  time 
of  famine  to  rush  the  surplus  in  one  province  to 
feed  the  starving  in  another,  and  thus  there  will 
be  a  mitigation  of  the  suffering  which  takes  place 
at  such  a  time. 

Great  Aid  to  Evangelization.  We  know  that  one 
of  the  great  means  by  which  the  gospel  was  carried 
rapidly  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the 
Roman  Empire  was  the  wonderful  system  of  well- 
built  roads,  many  of  which  survive  even  to  the 
present  day.  With  the  development  of  the  railway 
system  in  China,  the  great  difficulties  of  travel  will 
disappear,  and  the  ambassadors  of  Christ  will  be 
able  to  penetrate  into  regions  hitherto  largely  in- 
accessible. Many  examples  might  be  cited  of  what 
has  already  been  accomplished  in  this  way.  For 
instance,  the  journey  from  Shanghai  to  Wusieh,  a 
distance  of  a  little  over  a  hundred  miles  by  canal, 
formerly  took  three  days,  and  now  can  be  accom- 
plished in  as  many  hours.  The  English  missionaries 
working  in  Szechwan  spend  more  time  in  traveling 
from  Shanghai  to  their  station  than  they  do  on  the 
voyage  from  England  to  China.  They  must  en- 
counter the  danger  of  shipwreck  in  the  rapids  of 
the  upper  Yangtze,  and  are  in  perils  by  land  and 


88  The  Emergency  in  China 

perils  by  water.  When  the  railway  is  completed, 
the  journey  will  take  less  than  a  week. 

Opposition  to  Railways.  Railroads  have  not 
made  their  way  into  China  without  causing  serious 
disturbances.  The  ignorance  and  superstition  of 
the  people  have  not  been  the  only  obstacles,  but 
the  securing  of  concessions  for  building  the  roads 
by  foreign  syndicates  has  caused  much  friction,  and 
has  stirred  up  an  antiforeign  spirit.  Although  the 
lines  constructed  by  foreign  capital  are  redeemable 
by  Chinese  after  a  definite  period  of  time,  yet  there 
has  been  considerable  doubt  as  to  whether  they 
would  be  delivered  up  when  the  time  arrived.  This 
has  led  to  a  determined  effort  to  buy  back  con- 
cessions already  granted,  to  resist  further  foreign 
loans,  and  to  build  the  railroads  of  China  with 
native  capital.  The  former  government,  however, 
realizing  the  difficulty  of  raising  sufficient  capital 
in  China  for  the  speedy  construction  of  the  lines, 
favored  the  policy  of  raising  foreign  loans,  and 
pursued  this  course  in  spite  of  its  unpopularity 
with  the  people. 

Attempt  to  Bring  the  Railways  under  Govern- 
ment Control.  As  we  have  already  stated  in  the 
first  chapter,  just  before  the  revolution,  the  govern- 
ment undertook  to  bring  all  the  main  trunk  lines 
under  national  control.  This  scheme  was  proposed 
by  Sheng  Kung-pao  and  he  was  entrusted  with  the 
task  of  carrying  it  out.  It  was  impossible  to  con- 
vince the  people  of  China  that  the  policy  of  the 
nationalization  of  railways  had  much  in  its  favor, 


TRAIN  OiN  SHANGllAl-HANGCHOW  RAILWAY 
SOOCHOW  STATION,  SHANGHAI-NANKING  RAILWAY 


lp88] 


Industrial  Developments  89 

for  they  suspected  the  government  of  a  desire  to 
gain  control  for  their  own  selfish  purposes.  They 
preferred  to  have  the  matter  in  the  hands  of  each 
province.  The  attempt  to  force  the  people  to  sub- 
mit to  the  w^ishes  of  the  throne  was  one  of  the 
causes  leading  up  to  the  revolution.  When  too 
late,  the  Manchu  government  realized  its  mistake, 
and  rescinded  the  measure.  In  order  to  appease  the 
angry  multitude,  Sheng  Kung-pao  was  made  a 
scapegoat  and  cashiered.  So  bitterly  was  he  hated 
that  he  was  forced  to  flee  for  safety  to  Japan. 

Cotton  Mills.  In  the  past  quarter  of  a  century 
there  has  been  a  marked  and  steady  development 
of  new  industries.  The  cotton  mill  for  making 
yarn  was  the  first  to  make  its  appearance,  and  it 
was  found  that  Chinese  cotton,  although  of  very 
short  staple,  yet  when  mixed  with  other  cotton, 
answered  the  purpose  admirably.  China  is  a  great 
cotton  growing  country,  and  the  acreage  under  cul- 
tivation increases  every  year.  We  can  readily  un- 
derstand this  when  we  bear  in  mind  that  the  clothes 
of  the  people  are  for  the  most  part  made  out  of 
cotton  cloth.  Only  the  rich  can  afford  to  wear 
silk,  and  it  is  no  exaggeration  to  call  China  the 
land  of  the  blue  cotton  gown.  It  has  been  esti- 
mated that  the  annual  consumption  of  cotton  cloth 
is  worth  about  $1,000,000,000,  and  of  this  large 
quantity  four  fifths  is  produced  by  the  Chinese 
themselves  and  manufactured  by  crude  machinery. 
The  cloth  made  by  the  native  loom  is  so  much 
stronger  than  that  made  by  machinery  that  it  is 


go  The  Emergency  in  China 

preferred  by  the  peasants,  and  it  will  be  a  long 
time  before  the  foreign  commodity  will  take  the 
place  of  the  native  article.  In  China  itself  but  little 
cloth  is  manufactured,  and  the  mills  for  the  most 
part  make  the  yarn  which  is  converted  into  cloth 
on  the  native  looms. 

Operation  and  Wages.  There  are  at  the  present 
time  some  twelve  mills,  the  principal  ones  being  in 
Shanghai  and  Wuchang.  The  largest  one,  situ- 
ated in  Shanghai,  has  65,000  spindles,  employs 
6,000  hands — 1,000  men,  4,500  women,  and  500  chil- 
dren ranging  from  twelve  to  thirteen  years  of  age. 
The  average  wage  is  30  cents  Mexican  ^  per  day 
for  men,  2^  cents  Mexican  for  women,  and  12  cents 
Mexican  for  children.  The  labor  in  this  mill  is 
entirely  Chinese  with  the  exception  of  the  super- 
intendent of  the  mill  and  the  superintendent  of 
boilers,  who  are  Englishmen.  Six  hundred  looms 
are  operated,  having  an  output  of  1,200  pieces  daily 
of  plain,  unbleached  sheeting  which  sells  for  $4.50 
per  piece  of  forty  yards,  weighing  fourteen  pounds. 

Silk  Filatures.  China  has  always  been  famous 
for  its  silk,  and  one  of  the  features  of  the  land- 
scape in  Central  China  is  the  grove  of  stunted  mul- 
berry trees  raised  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  the 
leaves  upon  which  the  silkworm  feeds.  Formerly 
the  whole  process  of  making  silk  from  beginning 
to  end  was  by  hand,  but  recently  silk  filatures  have 
been  erected  for  the  purpose  of  spinning  the  silk 
thread  by  means  of  machinery,  and  employment  is 
^A  Mexican  cent  is  worth  about  half  a  cent  gold. 


Industrial  Developments  91 

given  in  them  to  a  vast  number  of  women  and 
young  girls  who  attend  the  bobbins.  There  are  at 
least  forty-eight  filatures  in  operation  at  the  present 
time,  and,  as  the  prospect  of  the  silk  business  is 
very  bright,  we  may  expect  to  see  rapid  advances 
in  this  industry. 

Machinery  Introduced.  The  Chinese  have  come 
to  see  the  advantage  of  machinery,  and  it  is  being 
employed  for  the  manufacture  of  glass,  soap,  paper, 
and  other  articles.  Flour  mills  have  been  erected, 
and  even  a  factory  for  making  woolen  goods. 

Consequences  of  Introduction  of  Machinery.  The 
introduction  of  foreign  machinery  into  China  has 
come,  and  it  is  natural  to  speculate  upon  the  con- 
sequences. Owing  to  the  fact  that  labor  is  so 
cheap  its  application  to  many  industries  will  proba- 
bly be  more  gradual  than  it  was  in  the  West,  and 
hence  it  will  not  produce  such  sudden  economic 
disturbances.  In  farming,  for  instance,  there  is  little 
likelihood  for  a  long  time  to  come  that  the  machine 
will  replace  the  man.  This  is  due  not  only  to  the 
cheapness  of  labor,  but  to  the  fact  that  in  China 
we  have  the  system  of  peasant  ownership,  each 
family  owning  a  few  acres  of  land. 

Harmful  and  Helpful  Phases.  Machinery  brings 
a  new  element  into  the  social  system,  and  until 
factory  laws  have  come  into  operation  it  will  pro- 
duce serious  evils.  In  the  first  place  the  health 
of  the  women  and  girls,  accustomed  to  an  outdoor 
life  in  the  sunshine,  will  be  injuriously  affected  by 
the    close    confinement    in    artificially    heated    and 


92  The  Emergency  in  China 

densely  thronged  factories.  Child  labor,  which  has 
caused  in  the  past  so  much  harm  in  the  West,  will 
produce  like  physical  and  mental  deterioration  in 
the  East.  At  the  present  time  twelve  hours  labor 
a  day  is  frequently  demanded  of  these  children, 
and  often  there  is  no  Sunday  holiday.  The  freer 
intercourse  of  the  sexes,  so  alien  to  Chinese  social 
customs,  is  bound  at  first  to  give  rise  to  much  im- 
morality. Machinery  will  be  by  no  means  an  un- 
mitigated blessing  to  China.  There  is,  of  course, 
a  brighter  side  to  the  picture.  It  means  a  greater 
production  and  a  wider  distribution  of  wealth,  and 
will  eventually  lead  to  an  elevation  in  the  standard 
of  living.  All  this,  of  course,  has  far-reaching  ef- 
fects in  the  advance  of  civilization. 

China  as  a  World  Competitor.  To  the  world  at 
large,  China  supplied  with  machinery — a  great  man- 
ufacturing country — is  an  interesting  problem. 
Owing  to  the  density  of  her  population,  the  cheap- 
ness of  her  labor,  the  diligence,  sobriety,  and  clever- 
ness of  her  people,  and  the  low  standard  of  living, 
she  will  become  an  important  competitor  and  one 
that  cannot  be  overlooked.  The  markets  of  the 
world  are  open  to  her  and  she  may  become  the 
source  of  supply  for  many  manufactured  com- 
modities. 

Effects  Probably  Delayed.  Some  have  referred 
to  the  coming  industrial  competition  as  the  real 
.Yellow  Peril.  The  fear  is  perhaps  somewhat  ex- 
aggerated. As  has  been  well  said:  "It  is  not 
likely  that  the  march  of  industrialism  in  China  will 


Industrial  Developments  93 

be  so  rapid  and  triumphant  as  many  have  antici- 
pated. Jealousy  of  the  foreigner,  dearth  of  capital, 
ignorant  labor,  official  squeeze,  graft,  nepotism, 
lack  of  exports  and  inefficient  management  will 
long  delay  the  harnessing  of  the  cheap  labor  of 
China  to  the  machine.  Not  we,  nor  our  children, 
but  our  grandchildren  will  need  to  lie  awake  nights. 
It  is  along  in  the  latter  half  of  this  century  that 
the  Yellow  man's  economic  competition  will  begin 
to  mold  with  giant  hands  the  politics  of  the 
planet."^  When,  however,  we  reflect  on  the  mo- 
mentum with  which  China  is  now  moving,  we  may 
well  believe  that  the  day  of  her  becoming  an  im- 
portant factor  in  the  industrialism  of  the  world  is 
not  quite  so  far  off  as  the  writer  we  have  quoted 
imagines. 

Christian  Leaven  Essential.  We  are  well  aware 
of  the  evils  of  our  own  industrial  system.  It  is 
only  because  we  are  influenced  to  a  certain  extent 
by  the  Spirit  of  Christ  in  our  legislation  and  in 
our  competition  that  these  evils  are  moderated.  We 
are  forced  to  ask  the  question,  How  will  it  be  with 
China  if  the  leavening  influence  of  Christianity  is 
left  out?  If  we  give  China  only  the  materialistic 
side  of  our  civilization,  will  not  the  last  state  be 
worse  than  the  first? 

Must  Have  New  Ethical  Basis.    We  heard  some 

Chinese  merchants  a  sho^tjime  ago  bemoaning  the 

fact  that  the  type  of  trader  produced  in  China  by 

the  new  conditions  created  by  modern  industry  was 

^  E.  A.  Ross,  The  Changing  Chinese,  136,  137. 


94  The  Emergency  in  China 

so  inferior  to  that  of  days  gone  by.  The  Chinese 
have  been  proud  of  their  high  reputation  for  com- 
mercial integrity,  but  they  stand  in  danger  of  losing 
it.  The  old  ethical  ideals  are  losing  their  force, 
and  nothing  is  taking  their  place.  One  has  always 
felt  grieved  at  the  lack  of  the  finer  feelings  of 
sympathy  and  pity  among  the  masses  of  the  people, 
and  their  callousness  in  regard  to  the  value  of 
human  life.  If  we  imagine  the  new  age  of  in- 
dustrialism coming  into  China  among  a  people  who 
have  not  developed  a  great  regard  for  others  and 
at  a  time  when  the  moral  ideals  are  being  under- 
mined by  skepticism  and  materialism,  we  can  realize 
the  danger  of  the  situation.  Only  the  ideals  of  the 
Christian  religion  can  quicken  the  consciences  of 
the  people  and  promote  honesty,  justice,  and  sym- 
pathy among  them.  It  may  sound  startling,  but 
we  believe  that  the  new  industrialism  will  be  a 
curse  to  China  unless  the  religion  of  Christ  comes 
with  it.  We  may  go  even  further:  it  will  be  a 
menace  to  the  world.  If  China  adopts  low  standards 
in  her  commercial  and  industrial  life  and  becomes 
one  of  the  greatest  competitors  for  trade,  she  may 
drag  the  rest  of  the  world  down  with  her.  The 
world  is  becoming  one,  all  barriers  are  being  leveled. 
If  the  West  does  not  influence  the  East  by  her 
spiritual  life,  the  East  may  demoralize  the  West. 
The  cold  blast  of  materialism  may  chill  the  spiritual 
and  moral  atmosphere  of  the  whole  world. 

Development  of  Mines.     In  recent  years  there 
has  been  increased  activity  in  the  development  of 


Industrial  Developments  95 

mines.  The  principal  coal  supplies  in  North  China 
are  derived  from:  i.  The  Kaiping  district;  2.  The 
neighborhood  of  Mukden ;  3.  The  Shansi  and  Honan 
districts ;  4.  Shantung.  The  Shansi  and  Honan  coal 
measures  are  of  vast  extent.  The  coal  is  princi- 
pally anthracite,  but  bituminous  is  found  in  many 
places,  and  all  that  is  needed  to  make  these  mines 
wonderfully  productive  is  the  further  extension  of 
railways  and  means  of  communication.  Hitherto 
the  state  of  Pennsylvania  has  been  given  as  leading 
the  world  with  its  20,000  square  miles  of  coal  lands. 
Richthofen  after  careful  investigations  carried  on 
through  North  China  states  that  the  Province  of 
Shansi  will  take  the  palm  from  Pennsylvania.^  The 
principal  anthracite  mines  now  operated  belong  to 
the  Shansi  Company,  a  purely  Chinese  concern, 
and  to  the  Peking  Syndicate  Limited,  a  British  cor- 
poration. Coal  is  found  in  many  other  places  in 
China.  Indeed  there  is  some  in  almost  every 
province,  and  Hunan  and  Kiangsi  especially  have 
very  extensive  deposits. 

Hindrances  to  Opening  of  Mines.  China  is  only 
held  back  from  becoming  one  of  the  greatest  coal 
producing  countries  in  the  world  by  lack  of  capital 
and  her  unwillingness  to  secure  the  capital  by 
foreign  loans.  The  government  has  yielded  to 
pressure  and  granted  many  valuable  mining  con- 
cessions to  foreign  companies,  but  this  policy  has 
always  been  unpopular  among  the  people.     In  the 

*  Later  investigations  indicate  that  this  estimate  may  be  ex- 
aggerated.    But  in  any  event  the  deposits  are  immense. 


96  The  Emergency  in  China 

new  China  more  wholesome  views  will  be  enter- 
tained in  regard  to  the  wisdom  of  development  of 
China's  resources  by  making  use  of  foreign  capital, 
and  we  may  expect  to  see  the  adoption  of  a  saner 
policy.  The  people  of  Shansi  actually  paid  the 
Peking  Syndicate  two  and  a  quarter  million  of 
dollars  to  relinquish  an  undeveloped  concession. 

Government  Monopoly.  The  former  government 
also  committed  the  mistake  of  making  the  right  of 
mining  a  government  monopoly,  and  has  repeatedly 
prevented  private  capital  from  being  used  in  this 
way.  The  monopoly,  however,  was  not  to  be  em- 
ployed for  the  advantage  of  the  people,  but  merely 
for  the  increase  of  the  wealth  of  the  rulers.  Thus 
the  incalculable  and  almost  inexhaustible  treasures 
have  been  left  locked  up  in  the  earth,  and  China 
has  continued  to  be  poor. 

"Terrestrial  Astrology."  Another  reason  in  the 
past  for  the  neglect  of  mining  has  been  the  hoary 
superstition  to  which  we  have  already  referred — 
the  feng-shui — which  has  been  somewhat  aptly 
called  "terrestrial  astrology."  The  dragon  and 
tortoise  lying  beneath  the  hills  have  had  to  be  taken 
into  consideration.  Even  when  left  alone  they  are 
not  always  well  disposed,  but  when  disturbed  they 
may  manifest  their  anger  through  earthquakes  and 
other  calamities.  "The  Chinese  have  found  their 
minerals,  foreigners  have  discovered  theirs.  The 
former  trusted  to  accident,  the  latter  to  science." 
With  the  spread  of  knowledge  these  difficulties  and 
obstacles  will  disappear,  and  the  one  crux  will  be 


Industrial  Developments  97 

the  matter  of  capital.  When  there  is  an  honest 
administration  in  the  government,  native  capital 
will  be  forthcoming.  Loans  will  be  regarded  in 
the  right  light,  and  the  Chinese  will  perceive  that 
the  money  borrowed  can  easily  be  repaid  as  soon  as 
the  mines  produce  a  regular  output. 

Mineral  Wealth  of  China.  Much  might  be  said 
about  the  other  mineral  wealth  of  China.  It  has 
by  no  means  as  yet  been  thoroughly  explored,  but 
the  results  of  the  investigations  thus  far  conducted 
show  without  doubt  that  China  is  one  of  the  richest 
countries  on  the  face  of  the  globe  in  mineral  re- 
sources. There  is  an  abundance  of  iron,  and  it  is 
found  in  close  proximity  to  the  coal  needed  for  its 
smelting.  Copper,  which  has  always  been  a  govern- 
ment monopoly,  is  already  mined  on  a  large  scale  in 
the  Province  of  Yunnan. 

Manufacture  of  Iron  and  Steel.  China  has  begun 
to  use  her  own  iron  in  the  manufacture  of  steel 
rails,  and  at  the  outbreak  of  the  revolution  the 
Hanyang  Iron  Works,  situated  on  the  Yangtze 
near  Hankow  and  Wuchang,  was  busily  employed 
in  this  way.  These  works  are  supplied  with  the 
best  modern  machinery  and  employ  over  5,000 
hands.  Fortunately  during  the  fighting  about 
Hankow,  although  in  the  danger  zone,  they  were 
not  injured  to  any  great  extent,  and  now  the  valua- 
ble plant  is  again  in  full  operation. 

Importation  to  United  States.  Only  a  few  years 
ago  China  imported  all  her  steel  and  iron  from 
foreign   countries,  now  she  is  able   to  export  pig 


98  The  Emergency  in  China 

iron  and  lay  it  down  on  the  western  coast  of  the 
United  States  at  so  low  a  price  that  she  is  able  to 
undersell  the  American  product.  The  Hanyang 
Iron  Works  contracted  a  short  time  ago  with  an 
American  syndicate  to  furnish  annually  for  fifteen 
years  from  36,000  to  72,000  tons  of  pig  iron,  to  a 
steel  plant  building  at  Irondale  on  Puget  Sound. 

Arsenals.  China  has  been  quick  in  learning  an- 
other lesson  from  the  West,  very  different  from  the 
peaceful  industries  to  which  we  have  referred.  She 
has  been  busily  arming  herself,  and  has  established 
arsenals  for  the  manufacture  of  the  implements 
of  war.  The  largest  ones  are  at  Tientsin,  Shanghai, 
Nanking,  Wuchang,  Chengtu,  and  Canton,  and 
there  are  smaller  establishments  at  other  centers. 
At  some  of  the  arsenals,  heavy  guns,  rifles,  and 
ammunition,  including  smokeless  powder,  are  manu- 
factured in  large  quantities.  Dockyards  have  been 
constructed  in  Shanghai,  Foochow,  and  Tientsin, 
at  which  small  steamers  and  cruisers  have  been 
built. 

Growth  of  Militarism.  It  has  often  been  re- 
marked that  the  Chinese  are  not  a  warlike  people, 
and  they  have  been  held  up  as  an  example  in  this 
respect.  The  former  absence  of  the  military  spirit 
may  be  attributed  to  the  teaching  of  Confucius, 
the  ascendancy  of  the  literati,  and  the  general 
contempt  with  which  soldiers  were  regarded. 
There  is  a  proverb  that  "good  men  are  not  made 
into  soldiers,  nor  good  iron  into  nails."  In  view  of 
recent  events,  the  statement  calls  for  some  modifica- 


INTERIOR  HANYANG  IRON  AND  STEEL  WORKS 

HILL  SIXTY-FIVE  PER  CENT.  IRON  ORE 

Only  sixteen  miles  from  steel  works 


[p98] 


Industrial  Developments  99 

tion.  Associated  with  the  new  national  conscious- 
ness there  has  been  an  ebullition  of  the  spirit  of 
militarism.  This  is  perfectly  natural,  for  we  can 
well  understand  China's  desire  to  defend  her  terri- 
tory and  to  resist  further  spoliation.  In  the  past 
she  has  made  a  poor  show  in  warfare  because  so 
badly  officered.  General  Gordon's  remark  is  worthy 
of  remembrance :  "Given  proper  leadership,  there 
are  no  better  soldiers  in  the  world  than  the 
Chinese."  During  the  recent  revolution  some 
splendid  fighting  was  done  by  the  volunteers  as 
well  as  by  the  soldiers  of  the  regular  army. 

Constitutes  a  Danger.  This  spirit  of  militarism 
is  a  danger,  and  it  will  be  sad  for  future  civiliza- 
tion if  by  any  chance  it  should  increase  to  such  an 
extent  as  to  constitute  a  menace  to  the  peace  of 
the  world.  Napoleon's  warning  in  regard  to  stirring 
the  sleeping  giant  is  still  to  be  heeded.  If  China 
learns  only  the  art  of  modern  warfare  from  the 
West,  we  are  sowing  the  wind  and  will  surely  reap 
the  whirlwind. 

The  Telegraph  System.  The  rapid  development 
of  the  telegraph  system  has  been  very  remarkable. 
The  inauguration  dates  from  December  24,  1881, 
when  the  land  line  between  Shanghai  and  Tientsin 
— a  distance  of  about  1,000  statute  miles — was 
opened.  In  the  beginning  a  great  many  obstacles 
had  to  be  overcome  on  account  of  native  prejudice, 
and  in  order  to  make  it  popular  with  the  Chinese 
public,  the  administration  allowed  every  one  to 
telegraph  gratis  for  a  month.    Even  now  when  the 


100  The  Emergency  in  China 

ignorant  countrymen  hear  the  singing  of  the  wires 
from  the  vibration  caused  by  the  wind  they  fancy 
it  is  the  noise  of  the  messages  in  transmission. 

Middle  Period.  From  1881  on,  new  lines  were 
constructed,  linking  up  different  centers  of  the 
country.  Up  to  1884  Peking,  with  her  old  conserva- 
tive dignity  stood  outside  of  the  net  which  was 
gradually  being  woven,  and  all  telegrams  from  the 
capital  were  sent  down  to  Tientsin  by  special  cour- 
ier. When,  however,  the  war  broke  out  with 
France,  she  yielded  to  necessity,  and  a  telegraph 
station  was  opened  within  the  walls  of  the  city. 

Present  Status.  In  1910  there  were  28,124  miles 
of  aerial  lines  and  50,000  miles  of  aerial  wires, 
with  1,001  miles  of  submarine  cables  and  102 
miles  of  underground  cables.  Now  the  most 
distant  confines  of  the  country  are  in  imme- 
diate communication  with  one  another.  One  can 
readily  understand  something  of  the  significance 
of  this  change,  when  he  remembers  that  in  former 
days  rebellions  might  break  out  in  some  distant 
corner  of  the  empire,  and  not  be  heard  of  at  the 
capital  until  many  weeks  had  passed. 

Postal  System.  Very  commendable  progress  has 
been  made  in  the  development  of  the  postal  sys- 
tem. The  Chinese  have  always  been  a  nation  of 
letter  writers,  and  for  the  transmission  of  epistolary 
correspondence  they  established  a  very  efficient  sys- 
tem of  couriers  as  long  as  three  thousand  years 
ago.  Upon  the  waterways  and  canals  a  fleet  of 
swift  boats,  rowed   by  the  feet,  plied  to  and  fro 


Industrial  Developments  loi 

carrying  the  mail.  Postal  hongs  were  opened  in 
every  city,  town,  and  village  which  undertook  to 
convey  letters  and  small  packages  by  the  quickest 
route  at  the  lowest  possible  cost.  They  were  en- 
tirely the  result  of  private  enterprise,  and  were  a 
good  example  of  the  organizing  ability  of  the  Chi- 
nese. In  1896  the  imperial  post  was  established 
as  a  department  of  the  maritime  customs.  In  a 
period  of  four  years  the  increase  in  the  amount  of 
mail  handled  was  extraordinary  as  is  shown  by  the 
following  statistics:  Agencies  in  1906,  1,574;  in 
1910,  4,572.  Articles  dealt  with  in  1906,  113,000,000; 
in  1910,  355,000,000.  The  private  post-offices  have 
very  largely  been  put  out  of  business,  and  the  new 
service  is  furnishing  a  revenue  to  the  government. 
Probably  in  a  short  time  China  will  become  a  mem- 
ber of  the  Postal  Union. 

Foreign  Trade.^  The  Foreign  Trade  of  China 
has  steadily  increased  since  the  beginning  of  com- 
munication with  the  Western  world.  Imports  gen- 
erally were  valued  in  1867  at  $112,083,082,  and  in 
1905  at  $325,265,827.  Exported  goo^s  were  valued 
in  1867  at  $93,598,069,  and  in  1905  at  $165,788,665 — 
a  much  smaller  development  than  is  shown  in  the 
case  of  imports.  Although  on  the  surface  it  ap- 
pears as  if  the  balance  of  trade  were  greatly  against 
China  and  as  if  she  must  be  drained  of  her  precious 
metals,  yet  a  careful  study  of  the  situation  made  by 
Mr.  H.  B.  Morse,  formerly  Commissioner  of  Cus- 

*H.  B.  Morse,  The  Trade  and  Administration  of  the  Chi- 
nese Empire. 


102  The  Emergency  in  China 

toms  and  Statistical  Secretary,  shows  that  there 
are  many  other  sources  by  which  money  flows  into 
China,  which  constitute  invisible  assets.  Among 
them  he  calls  attention  to  the  large  sum  remitted 
annually  to  China  from  Chinese  laborers  in  foreign 
countries  and  to  the  annual  income  from  missions 
said  to  be  $10,000,000  per  annum.  As  the  result 
of  his  calculations,  he  shows  that  China's  liabilities 
and  assets  just  about  balance  one  another. 

Nanking  Exposition.  In  concluding  this  chapter 
we  cannot  give  a  better  idea  of  the  industrial  trans- 
formation now  in  progress  than  by  referring  to  the 
National  Exposition  held  at  Nanking  in  the  fall  of 
1910.  It  was  China's  first  attempt  in  this  line,  and 
although  compared  with  the  great  world  fairs  with 
which  we  of  the  West  are  familiar,  much  seemed 
primitive  and  on  a  small  scale,  yet  taking  every- 
thing into  consideration,  it  was  a  wonderful  ex- 
hibition of  progress,  and  to  the  visitor  could  not  fail 
to  be  full  of  significance.  The  large  grounds  were 
well  laid  out,  and  the  grouping  of  the  buildings 
was  picturesque.  At  night  there  was  the  usual 
scene  of  fairyland,  the  white  buildings  being  illu- 
minated by  many-colored  electric  lamps.  As  one 
passed  from  the  streets  of  the  city  into  the  borders 
of  the  exposition,  it  was  like  stepping  out  of  the 
fifteenth  into  the  twentieth  century. 

Range  of  Display.  Altogether  there  were  thirty- 
eight  buildings,  fourteen  of  which  represented  as 
many  provinces  and  contained  exhibits  of  their 
chief  productions.     One  saw  gathered  together  for 


Industrial  Developments  103 

the  first  time  what  was  representative  of  the  whole 
of  China,  specimens  of  the  old  arts  and  industries 
alongside  of  what  was  new  and  recently  developed. 
There  were  buildings  devoted  to  Education,  Liberal 
Arts,  Agriculture,  Fine  Arts,  Arms  and  Ammuni- 
tion, Machinery,  and  Transportation.  Perhaps  one 
of  the  most  interesting  was  that  containing  educa- 
tional exhibits,  for  it  was  a  striking  object-lesson 
of  what  had  been  accomplished  in  a  short  time  in 
the  transformation  of  the  old  educational  system. 

Impression  of  Startling  Change.  A  miniature 
train  ran  round  the  grounds  on  narrow-gage  rails 
much  as  if  China  had  always  been  accustomed  to 
this  mode  of  travel.  The  holding  of  the  exhibition 
was  a  sign  of  growing  unity  and  increasing  co- 
herence in  the  country,  and  showed  the  breaking 
down  of  barriers  of  separation.  As  one  walked 
about  from  building  to  building,  he  was  over- 
powered by  a  sense  of  coming  change,  and  felt  as 
if  great  latent  forces  were  at  work,  bound  to  pro- 
duce startling  manifestations  in  the  near  future. 

Real  Problem  of  Progress.  The  development  in 
industry  and  commerce  is  all  a  part  of  the  modern- 
izing of  China.  She  has  been  influenced  by  the 
spirit  of  the  age,  and  moves  forward  on  the  path 
of  material  progress.  Her  greatest  danger  is  lest 
she  forgets  that  "Man  does  not  live  by  bread  alone, 
but  by  every  word  that  proceedeth  out  of  the 
mouth  of  God." 


104  The  Emergency  in  China 

IMPORTANT   QUOTATIONS 

China  is  now  and  for  forty  centuries  has  been  an  agricul- 
tural nation.  Much  of  her  mountainous  surface,  naturally  ill- 
adapted  to  cultivation,  has  been  transformed  by  a  stupendous 
amount  of  human  labor  into  food-producing,  fertile  fields.  To 
the  minerals  hoarded  in  these  mountains  she  has  paid  little 
attention,  never  dreaming  of  the  vast  potential  wealth  locked 
far  beneath  her  soils,  awaiting  but  the  magic  touch  of  modern 
industry  to  release  it.  To  her  present  agricultural  industries 
these  resources  of  coal  and  metals,  once  developed,  will  supply 
new  raw  materials  and  mechanical  power,  which  ultimately 
will  make  possible,  in  the  hands  of  her  enormous  population, 
the  development  of  a  manufacturing  industry  of  almost  incon- 
ceivable magnitude,  and  will  lay  the  foundation  of  a  world- 
wide commerce. 

— Annals  of  the  American  Academy  of  Political  and  Social 
Science,  January,  1912. 

On  the  Hankow-Peking  Railway  in  1904. 

From  places  many  hundreds  of  miles  away  cargo_  by  the 
thousand  ton  is  pouring  in,  the  native  merchants  seizing  only 
too  eagerly  the  opportunity  now  being  offered  to  them  for 
conveying  their  goods  to  the  great  markets  with  a  rapidity 
which  has  never  before  been  possible.  And  this  is  but  one 
little  corner  of  Honan,  which,  with  the  exception  of  one  or 
two  other  provinces,  probably  possesses  the  richest  soil  in 
China.     .... 

Right  up  to  the  end  of  the  rails  there  were  ample  signs 
that  the  Chinese  are  showing  their  appreciation  of  this  new 
means  of  communication ;  for  at  every  station  near  a  town  of 
importance  native  inns  are  going  up,  and  godowns  and  sheds 
are  being  constructed  in  great  numbers,  thus  making  a  new 
semi-foreign  settlement  flanked  by  railway  embankments.  Even 
on  the  construction  trains  crowds  of  Chinese  manage  to  find 
places,  and  it  is  amply  clear  that  the  dividend-earning  capacity 
of  this  line  would  turn  European  railway  companies  green 
with  envy.  Everything  points  to  the  fact  that  it  is  communica- 
tion, and  communication  alone,  which  is  needed  to  bring  about 
great  developments  in  the  interior  of  China ;  and  once  taxa- 
tion of  goods  in  transit — the  detested  likin — is  removed,  an 
expansion  will  take  place  of  a  phenomenal  nature. 

— B.  L.  Putnam  Weale,  Reshaping  of  the  Far  East,  Vol.  I. 

Side  by  side  with  the  new  education  is  the  new  industry. 
In  nations  where  industrial  efficiency  and,  in  consequence,  the 


Industrial  Developments  105 

standard  of  living  have  been  low,  and  the  resulting  poverty, 
suffering,  and,  in  many  cases,  death  pathetically  prevalent,  a 
new  industrial  order  is  appearing.  Along  Western  lines,  often 
under  Western  leadership,  the  factory  system  is  entering>-And 
the  teeming  millions  of  Asia,  with  their  boundless  patience, 
tireless  industry,  and  ability  to  work  hour  after  hour  and  day 
after  day  for  a  pittance,  are  beginning  to  compete  with  the 
laboring  classes  of  Europe  and  America.  This  is  not  the  place, 
to  dwell  upon  the  possible  consequences  to  the  West,  but  from 
the  point  of  view  of  the  missionary  several  points  are  to  be 
noted : 

1.  The  inoculation  of  the  East  with  Western  materialism. 
The  Oriental  peoples  have  been  idealists  and,  with  the  partial 
exception  of  the  Chinese,  have  placed  little  value  upon  mate- 
rial wealth.  In  this  soil  the  idealism  of  Christianity  has  found 
root.  NoW;  however,  education  is  breaking  down  old  beliefs, 
and  industry  is  teaching  these  people  to  see  in  the  acquisition 
of  wealth  the  chief  end  of  life. 

2.  The  introduction  into  the  East  of  the  industrial  prob- 
lems of  the  West.  Asia  has  known  congestion,  but  has  never 
faced  "slum  problems,"  in  our  sense  of  the  phrase.  The  new 
industry  is  leading  to  the  rapid  growth  of  cities,  with  their 
problems  of  housing  and  sanitation.  Japanese  women  are 
leaving  their  homes  to  enter  factories.  In  short,  one  finds 
springing  up  all  the  industrial  conditions  which  have  been  a 
blot  upon  Western  Christianity  all  these  years,  and  which  even 
our  Christian  public  sentiment  has  failed  to  solve.  With  the 
low  value  placed  upon  the  life  of  the  individual  by  the  Orient, 
the  new  spirit  of  an  agnostic  materialism  actuating  the  lead- 
ers, and  the  absence  of  a  vigorous  Christian  public  opinion,  the 
possibilities  of  exploitation  and  suffering  are  appalling.  Noth- 
ing but  intelligent  and  Christian  leadership  will  avail  to  avert 
this  danger. 

3.  At  the  same  time,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  poverty  of 
the  East  would  have  rendered  impossible  the  establishment 
and  maintenance  there  of  those  educational  and  philanthropic 
institutions  which  embody  the  spirit  of  Christ.  The  new  in- 
dustrial development,  and  nothing  else,  can  change  this  situ- 
ation, lift  the  incubus  of  abject  poverty,  and  make  possible  a 
full,  rich  life  for  the  masses  of  t3ie  people.     .     .     . 

—Dr.  E.  W.  Capen,  The  East  and  the  West,  April,  1912. 

Plans  are  in  view  for  improving  and  beautifying  the  provin- 
cial city  [Canton].  The  old  wall  is  to  be  taken  down  and  a 
boulevard  made  in  its  place,  and  parks  are  to  be  laid  out  for 
the  people.     Finer  buildings  are  being  constructed  and  some- 


Io6  The  Emergency  in  China 

what  in  foreign  style  with  verandas  in  front.  Prosperity  in 
trade  seems  to  be  coming.  All  through  the  city  are  newly- 
opened  shops,  tailor  shops,  shoe  shops,  hat  shops,  etc.,  to  meet 
the  demand  for  foreign  styles  of  dress,  and  department  stores 
for  general  supplies.  The  influence  of  all  this  passes  on  to 
the  rest  of  the  province.  The  revival  of  trade  will  gradually 
relieve  the  government  from  its  present  financial  distress. 
— Dr.  H.  V.  NoYES,  Chinese  Recorder,  January,  1913. 

When  the  new  government  is  established,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary that  all  land  deeds  shall  be  changed.  This  is  a  necessary 
corollary  of  the  revolution.  If  we  desire  to  forward  the  revo- 
lution of  society  then  when  the  change  is  made  a  slight  alter- 
ation should  be  introduced  into  the  form  of  the  deed  in  order 
that  the  greatest  results  may  be  achieved.  Formerly,  people 
\  owning  land  paid  taxes  according  to  the  area,  making  a  dis- 
tinction only  between  the  best,  medium,  and  common  land. 
In  the  future,  taxes  ought  to  be  levied  according  to  the  value, 
not  the  area,  of  the  land.     ... 

The  valuable  land  is  mostly  in  the  busy  marts  and  is  in  the 
possession  of  wealthy  men:  to  tax  them  heavily  would  be  no 
oppression.  The  poor  land  is  mostly  in  the  possession  of 
poor  people  in  far  back  districts :  nothing  but  the  lightest  taxes 
should  be  levied  on  them.     .     .    . 

Let  us  take  time  by  the  forelock  and  make  sure  that  the 
unearned  increment  of  wealth  shall  belong  to  the  people  and 
not  to  private  capitalists  who  happen  to  be  the  owners  of  the 
soil. 

— Extracts  from  the  speech  of  Dr.  Sun  Yat-sen,  at  the 
farewell  banquet  given  in  his  honor  by  the  Revolutionary  As- 
sociation, Shanghai,  April  18,  1912.  Chinese  Recorder,  May^ 
1912. 


SOCIAL  TRANSFORMATION 


CHAPTER   IV 

SOCIAL   TRANSFORMATION 

Seldom  do  we  find  that  a  whole  people  can  he  said 
to  have  any  faith  at  all,  except  in  things  that  it  can 
see  and  handle.  Whensoever  it  gets  any  faith,  its 
history  becomes  spirit-stirring,  noteworthy. 

— Thomas  Carlyle 

Radical  Alteration.  Among  all  the  changes 
transpiring  in  China,  not  the  least  important  is  the 
social  transformation.  It  is  not  a  mere  ruffling  of 
the  surface  but  is  caused  by  deep  and  hidden  forces 
which  have  produced  a  radical  alteration  in  the 
minds  of  the  people. 

Patriotism  and  Individualism.  They  have  im- 
bibed new  ideas  bound  to  exert  revolutionary  ef- 
fects, chief  among  which  are  a  national  conscious- 
ness, and  a  new  valuation  of  the  individual.  The 
patriotic  spirit  of  the  Japanese  has  been  infectious, 
and  their  triumphs  in  war  have  stirred  the  hearts 
of  all  Orientals,  causing  the  present  spirit  of  un- 
rest in  the  East.  Individualism  has  supplanted  the 
old  conception  of  the  family  as  the  social  unit. 
In  the  past  a  man  dared  not  act  contrary  to  the 
wishes  of  the  family  of  which  he  was  a  member. 
He  was  bound  not  only  by  the  filial  piety  due  to 

109 


no  The  Emergency  in  China 

living  parents,  but  could  make  no  new  departure 
displeasing  to  his  dead  ancestors.  Initiative  and 
progress  were  stifled,  and  his  duty  was  to  go  on 
in  the  old,  beaten  track  without  introducing  un- 
seemly innovations.  With  the  reaction  against 
such  ideas,  we  find  in  its  place  individualism  run 
mad.  Liberty,  equality,  and  fraternity  are  on  the 
lips  of  every  one. 

Some  Definite  Effects.  These  two  new  concep- 
tions help  to  account  for  the  rapid  social  transfor- 
mation. We  see  their  social  effects:  i.  In  the 
struggle  against  opium ;  2.  In  the  new  attitude  to- 
ward foot-binding;  3.  In  the  advent  of  the  new 
woman ;  4.  In  the  modification  of  social  customs ; 
5.  In  changes  in  costume  and  etiquette;  6.  In  the 
introduction  of  physical  culture. 

I.  The  Struggle  against  Opium 

A  Surprising  Reform.  If  ten  years  ago  a  mis- 
sionary had  prophesied  that  China  would  in  the 
course  of  a  short  period  of  time  get  rid  of  the  curse 
of  opium,  he  would  have  been  regarded  as  a  fanatic. 
The  habit  of  opium  smoking  had  gained  so  strong  a 
hold  upon  a  large  percentage  of  the  population,  the 
vested  interests  were  so  great,  and  the  revenue  de- 
rived by  the  government  from  the  tax  on  opium  so 
large  that  it  seemed  absolutely  impossible  to  expect 
any  immediate  reform. 

Extent  of  Evil.  Indeed,  as  we  look  back  over 
the  history  of  the  opium  traffic,  we  find  that  all 


Social  Transformation  III 

along  the  Chinese  have  been  conscious  of  the  havoc 
which  it  wrought,  and  more  than  once  edicts  for 
the  suppression  of  the  trade  and  the  prohibition  of 
the  use  of  the  drug  have  been  issued.  China  how- 
ever was  so  weak  in  moral  fiber  that  nothing  was 
accomplished.  It  has  been  estimated  that  $2,100,- 
000,000  has  been  the  price  paid  for  this  commodity- 
above  the  cost  price  between  the  years  1773  and 
1906.  Four  years  ago  the  Chinese  were  using  sev- 
enty times  as  much  opium  as  in  1800.  There  were 
perhaps  25,000,000  smokers,  and  22,000  tons  were 
consumed  annually.  In  Szechwan  one  half  of  the 
men  smoked,  and  a  fifth  of  the  women.  In  Kansu 
three  out  of  every  four  were  smokers. 

Some  Possible  Causes.  If  one  inquires  why  the 
Chinese  have  been  so  victimized  by  this  habit,  he 
finds  a  partial  explanation  in  the  Report  of  the 
Philippine  Opium  Commission,  drawn  up  in  1904. 
"What  people  on  earth  are  so  poorly  provided  with 
food  as  the  indigent  Chinese,  or  so  destitute  of 
amusement  as  all  Chinese  both  rich  and  poor!  .  ,  . 
Absolute  dulness  and  dreariness  seem  to  prevail 
everywhere.  As  these  two  demons  drive  the  Cau- 
casian to  drink,  so  they  drive  the  Chinese  to  opium. 
...  If  the  Chinese  seem  more  easily  to  contract 
such  evil  habits  than  other  nations,  and  are  more 
the  slaves  of  them,  is  not  that  due  to  the  dulness 
of  the  lives  of  the  well-to-do,  and  to  the  painful 
squalor  of  the  indigent?" 

Prohibition  Edicts.  "The  first  prohibitory  edict 
was  issued  by  Yung  Cheng  in  1729,  enacting  severe 


112  The  Emergency  in  China 

penalties  on  the  sale  of  opium,  and  the  opening  of 
opium  divans,  and  for  the  time  being  dealing  in 
opium  became  a  crime."^  It  was  still  imported, 
however,  and  in  1800  the  prohibitory  edict  was  is- 
sued anew.  The  only  result  was  that  smuggling 
became  organized  by  detailed  arrangements  be- 
tween the  importers  and  the  officials  at  Canton,  and 
elsewhere  along  the  coast.  Mr.  Morse  says,  "The 
edicts  never  were  enforced ;  for  forty  years  there 
was  no  pretense  of  enforcing  them  in  the  spirit, 
and  the  restrictions  of  their  letter  had  only  the  ef- 
fect of  covering  the  traffic  with  a  veil  of  decency 
such  that  the  importing  merchants  might  engage  in 
it,  the  officials  might  not  have  it  thrust  under  their 
eyes,  and  the  dealers  might  get  their  supplies  with 
more  trouble,  and  at  considerably  more  cost."  ^ 
Even  after  Commissioner  Lin  Tse-su  confiscated 
the  20,291  chests  of  opium  at  Canton,  in  1839,  "the 
local  trade  was  only  checked  for  a  time;  the  de- 
mand remained,  new  supplies  came  forward,  and 
the  trade  went  on."  Thus,  all  efforts  to  stay  the 
evil  seemed  ineffective,  and  on  the  other  hand  it 
gained  legal  recognition. 

Legalization  of  Opium  Traffic.  Article  XXVI  of 
the  British  Treaty  of  Tientsin  provided  for  the  ap- 
pointment of  a  commissioner  to  revise  the  customs 
tariff,  and  in  November,  1858,  the  opium  trade  was 
legalized  by  opium  being  inserted  in  the  tariff  at  a 


^  H.  B.  Morse,  The  Trade  and  Administration  of  the  Chinese 
Empire,  328. 
^Ibid.,  331. 


Social  Transformation  113 

duty  of  30  taels  per  picul/  with  the  full  consent  of 
the  Chinese  negotiators. 

Home  Production.  The  high  tariff  on  foreign 
opium  stimulated  the  production  of  the  native  ar- 
ticle, and  as  years  went  on  the  amount  of  land 
given  up  to  the  cultivation  of  the  poppy  in  China 
steadily  increased.  It  was  grown  in  almost  all 
the  provinces,  and  in  Yunnan  the  poppy  fields  con- 
stituted a  third  of  the  land  under  cultivation. 

Slight  Effect  on  Importation.  There  was  a  slight 
decline  in  the  amount  of  foreign  opium  imported, 
but  it  was  not  as  great  as  might  have  been  ex- 
pected for  the  reason  that  the  Chinese  preferred 
the  flavor  of  Indian  to  the  native-grown  opium.  It 
is  safe  to  say  that  at  one  time  the  production  of 
opium  in  China  was  sixfold,  and  perhaps  eightfold 
the  amount  of  imported  opium. 

Attitude  of  Missionaries.  From  the  beginning, 
missionaries  have  carried  on  an  active  campaign 
against  this  great  curse,  and  have  always  taken  the 
stand  that  opium-smokers  could  not  be  admitted  in- 
to the  Christian  church.  The  Anti-opium  Society, 
founded  by  the  missionaries,  was  vigorous  in  stir- 
ring up  public  opinion,  and  in  memorializing  the 
government.  The  name  of  the  late  Dr.  Hampden 
C.  Dubose  will  always  be  remembered  in  connec- 
tion with  this  movement.  As  originator  and  presi- 
dent of  the  Anti-opium  Society,  he  agitated  the  mat- 
ter without  ceasing  when  it  seemed  to  those  of  less 
faith  that  a  reform  was  a  forlorn  hope. 

^  A  tael  has  the  value  of  about  $1.40,  and  a  picul  is  a  com- 
mercial weight  of  133^  pounds. 


114  The  Emergency  in  China 

Influence  of  Philippine  Workers.  The  weighty  re- 
port drawn  up  in  1904  by  the  Philippine  commis- 
sion appointed  by  the  United  States  government  for 
the  careful  investigation  of  the  opium  question  was 
translated  into  Chinese  and  widely  circulated 
throughout  the  country.  Its  findings,  which  were 
very  different  from  the  commission  appointed  some 
years  previously  by  the  British  government,  were 
startling  and  did  not  fail  to  produce  an  effect  upon 
public  opinion.  This  report  was  based  on  the  ob- 
servations of  Bishop  Brent,  Dr.  H.  C.  Stuntz, 
and  Dr.  Hamilton  Wright,  and  to  them  belongs  the 
honor  of  having  given  great  impetus  to  the  anti- 
opium  crusade  in  China. 

Edict  of  1906.  In  1906  China  seemed  to  awake 
suddenly  to  the  ruin  which  opium  was  working 
among  her  people,  and  on  September  20  the  Em- 
press Dowager  issued  a  stringent  edict  in  regard 
to  it.  This  edict  did  not  meet  the  same  fate  as 
preceding  ones  of  the  same  character.  The  growth 
of  national  consciousness  opened  the  eyes  of  the 
Chinese  to  the  fact  that  the  nation  could  never  hope 
to  be  strong  until  this  evil  was  abolished.  We  find 
the  vast  majority  of  the  people  consenting  to  the 
enforcement  of  drastic  measures  and  approving  of 
the  imperial  will. 

International  Commission  at  Shanghai,  1909. 
Out  of  the  strong  anti-opium  movement  thus  in- 
itiated in  China  there  grew  a  direct  appeal 
to  the  President  of  the  United  States  from  repre- 
sentative missionary  societies  and  from  commercial 


POPPY  FIELD  OF  THE  PAST 
BURNING  OPIUM  PIPES 


[P  1141 


Social  Transformation  115 

and  reform  institutions  in  the  United  States  to  the 
effect  that  the  American  government,  considering 
its  previous  attitude  in  regard  to  the  opium  traffic 
in  the  far  East,  should  undertake  to  assist  China 
to  secure  the  gradual  prohibition  of  that  traffic  by 
the  concurrent  action  of  the  powers  concerned.  "In 
the  autumn  of  1906  the  Department  of  State  ad- 
dressed a  circular  letter  to  the  powers  having  ter- 
ritorial possessions  in  the  far  East,  the  object  being 
the  investigation  of  the  opium  problem  by  an  in- 
ternational commission."  As  the  result  of  this  let- 
ter an  international  commission  met  at  Shanghai  on 
the  first  of  February,  1909.  Before  adjourning  on 
the  26th  of  February,  this  commission  unanimously 
adopted  nine  fundamental  conclusions,  condemning 
the  opium  evil  on  both  economic  and  moral 
grounds. 

Agreement  with  Great  Britain,  1908.  In  1908,  an 
agreement  was  entered  into  with  Great  Britain,  ac- 
cording to  which  the  British  government  consented 
that  if  the  Chinese  government  should  duly  carry 
out  the  arrangement  on  their  part  for  reducing  the 
production  and  consumption  of  opium  in  China,  the 
importation  of  Indian  opium  would  be  curtailed 
every  year  by  one  tenth,  and  should  entirely  cease 
after  ten  years.  The  Chinese  government  asked  for 
a  shortening  of  the  period,  so  the  agreement  con- 
tained a  proviso  that  if  after  three  years  the  Chinese 
government  should  have  proved  itself  really  in  ear- 
nest, the  question  of  the  period  should  be  reconsid- 
ered.   To  the  surprise  of  all  familiar  with  the  meth- 


Ii6  The  Emergency  in  China 

ods  of  the  Chinese  government,  the  edicts  for  im- 
mediate suppression  were  not  only  issued,  but  vig- 
orously enforced.  It  was  decreed  that  opium  dens 
throughout  China  should  be  closed  and  that  there 
was  to  be  no  more  smoking  in  public  resorts.  At 
the  same  time  it  was  enjoined  upon  viceroys  and 
governors  to  put  a  stop  to  the  cultivation  of  the 
poppy  in  the  provinces  over  which  they  ruled  as 
speedily  as  possible.  All  officials  using  opium  were 
ordered  to  get  rid  of  the  habit  on  pain  of  dismissal 
from  the  public  service.  Although  the  difficulties 
of  suppression  were  great,  and  innumerable  at- 
tempts were  made  to  hoodwink  the  government, 
yet  in  three  years'  time  a  marvelous  change  took 
place.  The  number  of  opium-smokers  decreased 
rapidly,  and  the  cultivation  of  the  poppy  was  more 
and  more  restricted.  Travelers  reported  that  ex- 
traordinary progress  had  been  made  in  dealing  with 
the  problem,  and  the  British  government  was  as- 
sured by  Sir  John  Jordan,  his  British  majesty's  min- 
ister at  Peking,  of  China's  sincerity  in  promoting 
the  reform. 

Agreement  of  191 1.  A  new  agreement  between 
the  United  Kingdom  and  China  was  signed  at  Pe- 
king on  May  8,  191 1,  according  to  which  Great 
Britain  consented  that  the  export  of  opium  from  In- 
dia to  China  should  cease  in  less  than  seven  years 
if  clear  proof  was  given  of  the  complete  absence  of 
the  production  of  native  opium  in  China.  And  so 
rapidly  did  the  movement  go  forward  and  the  at- 
titude of  Great  Britain  change,  that  in  May,  1913, 


Social  Transformation  117 

the  British  Parliament  passed  the  measure  by  which 
the  importation  of  opium  into  China  was  brought  to 
an  end. 
International    Conference    at    the    Hague,    191 1. 

The  unity  of  opinion  of  the  powers  represented  on 
the  international  commission  which  met  at  Shang- 
hai opened  the  way  for  the  United  States  to  pro- 
pose   that   an    International    Conference   with    full 
powers  should  meet  to  conventionalize  the  declara- 
tions of  the  International  Opium  Commission  and 
the    essential    corollaries    derived   therefrom.      Ac- 
cordingly on  September  i,  1909,  the  United  States 
in  a  circular  letter  to  the  interested  governments 
proposed  that  there  should  be  such  a  conference, 
to  assemble  at  the  Hague,  to  devise  measures  for 
mutual  protection  against  the  illegal  opium  traffic. 
The  Hague  Conference  representing  twelve  powers 
met  in  the  latter  part  of  191 1,  and  its  decisions  have 
recently  been  made  public.     It  dealt  not  only  with 
the  evil  of  opium-smoking,  but  with  the  more  in- 
sidious form  of  the  opium  habit,  the  use  of  morphia 
and  cocaine,  and  it  recommends  a  strict  embargo 
upon  them  except  for  medical  purposes. 

Appeal  of  Tong  Kaison.  H.  E.  Tong  Kaison,  one 
of  the  Chinese  commissioners  to  the  Hague,  voiced 
the  sentiment  of  a  great  number  of  his  fellow  coun- 
trymen in  the  eloquent  appeal  made  to  the  English 
people  at  a  reception  given  at  the  Hotel  Cecil.  He 
concluded  his  speech  in  the  following  words: 
"Therefore  for  the  sake  of  your  national  righteous- 
ness, for  the  sake  of  your  fame,  for  the  sake  of 


Ii8  The  Emergency  in  China 

humanity  at  large,  and  of  the  Chinese  people  in 
particular,  and  for  the  sake  of  our  Lord  Jesus 
Christ,  in  whose  sight  we  are  all  God's  children, 
and  who  has  taught  us  to  love  others  as  ourselves, 
we  invoke  your  continued  cooperation  in  this  opium 
question  until  the  last  shipment  of  Indian  opium 
has  been  landed  in  China,  until  the  last  opium  pipe 
has  been  burnt,  and  until  the  last  acre  of  poppy 
shall  have  been  uprooted,  and  the  opium  evil  has 
disappeared  not  only  in  China,  but  throughout  all 
the  world." 

Revelation  of  the  Race.  We  can  thank  God  for 
this  wonderful  change  of  public  opinion.  In  wit- 
nessing China's  struggle  to  master  the  giant  evil, 
one  gets  a  new  idea  of  the  race.  The  description 
"phlegmatic"  is  hardly  applicable  to  a  people  who 
have  held  great  holocausts  of  opium  pipes  and  the 
utensils  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  smoke  in 
centers  like  Foochow  and  Shanghai. 

Moral  Basis  Required.  During  the  transition  pe- 
riod which  followed  the  revolution,  in  some  of  the 
provinces  there  has  been  a  recrudescence  of  the  cul- 
tivation of  the  poppy.  The  profits  of  the  trade  are 
so  large  and  the  people  are  so  poor  that  the  tempta- 
tion to  engage  in  it  is  always  great.  As  the  cen- 
tral government  becomes  stronger,  a  more  de- 
termined attempt  is  being  made  to  carry  out  the 
policy  of  complete  suppression.  Still,  we  know 
that  legislation,  however  drastic,  cannot  of  itself 
eradicate  an  abuse  like  this.  ''There  is  no  law  that 
cannot  be  defeated  by  the  clever  wicked."     Moral 


Social  Transformation  119 

reform  alone  can  save  China  from  the  curse  of 
opium,  for  only  in  this  way  can  she  learn  the  true 
principle  of  reverence  for  the  body. 

Danger  from  Strong  Intoxicants.  We  cannot  be 
blind  to  the  danger  of  China's  substituting  one  vice 
for  another.  In  relinquishing  opium  she  may  turn 
to  strong  intoxicants.  Indeed,  in  a  place  like 
Shanghai,  the  young  men  are  taking  to  strong 
drink  in  a  startling  manner,  and  drunkenness  in 
China  is  on  the  increase.  It  used  to  be  said  that 
one  seldom  met  a  drunken  man  on  the  street  of  a 
Chinese  city.  The  nation  had  reached  a  high  stand- 
ard of  sobriety  in  regard  to  the  use  of  alcohol. 
There  is  reason  to  believe  that  this  will  no  longer 
be  true  unless  a  new  power  of  self-restraint  is  de- 
veloped. The  moral  fiber  of  the  race  must  be 
strengthened  by  the  power  that  comes  from  the 
Christian  religion. 

Strenuous  Home  Methods.  The  following  story 
illustrates  the  determination  of  a  large  part  of  the 
people  in  the  struggle  with  opium.  A  Chinese  was 
guilty  of  infringing  the  law,  but  was  afraid  of  his 
wife,  and  patronized  a  sly  den.  One  day  he  re- 
turned to  his  home  thoroughly  saturated.  His  wife 
who  had  been  waiting  for  him  pounced  upon  him, 
took  his  pipe  from  his  pocket,  and  broke  it  in 
pieces.  Then  seizing  the  ear  of  the  unhappy  man, 
she  gave  him  a  tremendous  lecture,  and  ended  her 
attack  by  dragging  him  into  a  daric  room,  where 
she  kept  him  for  ten  days.  At  the  close  of  that 
period,  she  let  him  loose,  but  he  was  a  wreck.    She 


120  The  Emergency  in  China 

conquered  him,  and  during  the  painful  days  he  con- 
quered the  habit. 

2.  New  Attitude  toward  Foot-binding 

A  Social  Evil.  In  recent  years  China  has  made 
good  progress  in  her  battle  against  another  social 
evil — foot-binding, — and  we  see  the  evidences  of  a 
new  public  opinion  in  regard  to  the  practise. 

Origin  of  the  Custom.  The  custom  is  at  least 
two  thousand  years  old,  but  its  origin  is  shrouded 
in  obscurity.  The  most  natural  explanation  of  the 
cruel  custom  is  that  it  was  due  to  female  vanity, 
and  was  an  attempt  to  enhance  natural  beauty  by 
artificial  means.  In  the  imperial  harem  the  concu- 
bines vied  with  one  another  in  compressing  their 
feet  so  as  to  gain  the  favor  of  the  emperor  and  the 
people  naturally  followed  the  custom  of  the  court. 
There  is  no  evidence  that  it  arose  because  once  in 
the  dim  past,  some  ill-starreci  empress  had  club- 
feet, nor  because  the  husbands  desired  to  keep  their 
wives  from  gadding.  In  proof  of  its  antiquity,  we 
find  frequent  allusions  to  it  in  ancient  poems.  The 
poets  of  the  Tsin  Dynasty  (265-420  A.  D.)  refer 
to  it,  and  we  find  such  expressions  as,  *'With  little 
steps  her  feet  stir  up  the  dust";  and  again,  "My 
shoes  are  embroidered,  my  feet  are  as  delicate  as 
the  buds  of  spring;  but  there  is  no  one  who  pays 
special  attention  to  me,  except  myself,  who  knows 
the  pain." 

Tyrannous  Cruelty  of  the  Custom.    There  is  no 


Social  Transformation  121 

more  striking  instance  of  the  tyranny  of  custom 
than  foot-binding  affords.  We  need  not  describe 
the  process  again  or  enlarge  upon  its  cruelty,  for 
the  Chinese  proverb  that  "A  pair  of  golden  lilies 
costs  a  jar  of  tears"  is  sufficient  evidence  of  their 
own  realization  of  the  pain  and  misery  which  it 
costs. 

Kang  Hsi's  Edict.  The  Manchu  women  do  not 
bind  their  feet,  and  during  the  last  dynasty  no 
small-footed  women  were  admitted  into  the  palace. 
The  Emperor  Kang  Hsi  (1662-1723)  attempted  to 
put  a  stop  to  the  practise  and  issued  an  edict  against 
it.  Public  opinion  was,  however,  too  strong  and  the 
edict  led  to  so  much  trouble  that  he  was  obliged 
to  rescind  it.  The  Chinese  argued  that  it  was  an 
ancient  custom,  that  it  helped  to  distinguish  their 
daughters  from  large-footed  slave  girls,  and  that  it 
gave  their  daughters  a  better  chance  in  the  mar- 
riage market,  inasmuch  as  the  taste  of  men  ran 
strongly  in  the  direction  of  wives  with  small  feet. 

Edict  of  the  Late  Empress  Dowager,  1902.  After 
her  return  from  her  flight  to  Sianfu,  the  late 
Empress  Dowager  Tzu  Hsi  adopted  the  role  of  a 
reformer,  and  in  1902  issued  an  edict  discouraging, 
but  not  absolutely  forbidding  foot-binding.  This 
pronouncement  from  the  throne  was  important,  in- 
asmuch as  it  made  it  possible  for  the  high  officials 
throughout  the  empire  to  lend  the  weight  of  their 
influence  in  opposing  the  custom. 

Work  of  the  Missionaries.  The  credit  of  carry- 
ing on  an  active  crusade  against  it  belongs,  how- 


122  The  Emergency  in  China 

ever,  to  the  Christian  missionaries.  Here,  as  in 
many  other  things,  they  have  been  the  pioneers 
of  reform.  As  far  back  as  1870  we  find  mission 
schools  for  girls  forbidding  the  practise,  and  in 
1874  the  first  anti-footbinding  society  was  estab- 
lished in  Amoy. 

Natural  Foot  Society.  The  Natural  Foot  Society 
(Tien  Tsu  Hui)  was  organized  in  Shanghai  in 
1895  by  ten  ladies  of  different  nationalities,  and  it 
was  fortunate  in  having  as  its  secretary,  Mrs.  Archi- 
bald Little,  the  wife  of  an  English  merchant,  who 
was  indefatigable  in  her  efforts  to  extend  the  move- 
ment. She  traveled  throughout  the  country,  mak- 
ing addresses  on  the  subject  and  interviewing  high 
officials.  Literature  was  circulated  broadcast,  and 
Peking  was  bombarded  with  memorials.  By  nu- 
merous mass-meetings  attention  was  called  to  the 
subject  and  public  opinion  was  aroused.  The  move- 
ment had  its  origin  just  at  the  time  when  the  tide 
had  turned  in  China,  and  the  people  were  receptive 
of  new  ideas.  At  present  the  management  of  the 
affairs  of  the  society  is  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the 
Chinese.  Branches  have  been  established  at  many 
centers,  and  a  monthly  paper  is  issued  to  keep  the 
question  before  the  minds  of  those  who  read  and 
think. 

The  Changed  Fashion.  It  is  a  social  practise  now 
on  the  wane,  and  is  destined  in  course  of  time  to 
disappear.  The  women  of  the  new  China  are  op- 
posed to  it,  and  the  young  men  who  have  received 
an  enlightened  education  want  wives  with  natural 


Social  Transformation  123 

feet.  Instead  of  being  proud  of  her  little  golden 
lilies  as  formerly,  the  modern  Chinese  girl  strives 
to  conceal  the  fact  that  her  feet  have  been  bound, 
by  wearing  large  shoes  and  padding  the  extra  space 
in  them  with  cotton.  You  will  sometimes  see 
groups  of  women  comparing  their  feet  to  see  who 
can  boast  of  the  largest ! 

Dr.  Morrison's  Opinion.  Still  we  must  be  sober 
in  our  statements,  and  we  must  not  think  of  the 
battle  as  already  won.  Dr.  Morrison,  formerly  the 
correspondent  in  Peking  for  the  London  Times, 
and  now  adviser  to  the  Chinese  government,  after 
a  journey  through  the  interior  calculates  that 
ninety-five  per  cent,  of  the  females  still  have  mu- 
tilated feet.  He  says:  ''Speaking  broadly,  the  re- 
form has  not  reached  further  than  the  cities,  and 
the  higher  classes.  Much  of  the  open  country  is 
not  yet  aware  there  is  such  a  movement.  ...  It  is 
safe  to  say  that  at  the  present  there  are  in  China 
seventy  million  pairs  of  deformed,  aching,  and  un- 
sightly feet — the  sacrifice  exacted  of  its  woman- 
hood by  a  depraved  masculine  taste. "^ 

3.  The  New  Woman 

Beginnings  of  Her  Emancipation.     We  are  now 

face  to  face  with  the  advent  of  the  new  woman  in 
China.  Much  has  been  written  about  the  seclusion 
of  the  women  of  the  East.  While  not  as  strict 
in  China  as  in  other  Oriental  countries,  yet  the  at- 

^  Quoted  from  E.  A.  Ross,  The  Changing  Chinese,  182. 


124  The  Emergency  in  China 

titude  of  the  stronger  toward  the  weaker  sex  has 
been  much  the  same.  The  wife  was  referred  to  as 
"the  little  stay-at-home,"  and  she  was  not  supposed 
to  be  concerned  with  anything  outside  the  family 
life.  Polygamy,  one  of  the  curses  of  China,  has 
done  more  than  anything  else  to  degrade  woman, 
and  to  keep  her  the  slave  or  the  toy  of  man.  Her 
education  was  generally  neglected,  and  her  only 
functions  were  considered  to  be  child-bearing  and 
home-keeping.  Her  life  was  one  ceaseless  round  of 
obedience  first  to  father,  then  to  husband,  and  then 
in  her  widowhood  to  her  eldest  son. 

Emptiness  of  Her  Life.  A  visit  to  the  house  of 
a  well-to-do  Chinese  family  reveals  the  emptiness  of 
the  life  of  women  in  China  under  the  old  regime. 
The  writer  was  once  entertained  for  three  days  by  a 
wealthy  silk  merchant  in  an  inland  city  and  during 
all  that  time  never  laid  eyes  on  any  of  the  ladies 
of  the  household.  As  he  walked  in  the  garden, 
however,  he  was  conscious  that  they  were  peeping 
at  him  from  behind  the  blinds,  for  some  had  prob- 
ably never  seen  a  foreigner  before.  Only  a  woman 
could  gain  access  to  the  women's  apartments.  Such 
a  female  visitor  would  find  quite  a  number  of  ladies, 
living  in  the  one  household,  the  mother,  her  daugh- 
ters and  her  daughters-in-faw ;  for,  according  to 
the  old  custom,  when  a  son  married,  he  did  not  set 
up  a  new  home  but  brought  his  wife  back  to  his 
father's  house.  There  would  also  be  a  large  number 
of  children  and  many  women  servants  to  look  after 
them.     The  ladies  of  the  household  have  little  to 


Social  Transformation  125 

occupy  their  attention,  for  the  children  are  cared 
for  by  the  nurses.  To  while  away  the  time  they 
indulge  in  novel  reading,  if  they  can  read,  and  in 
gambling  with  dominoes.  They  seldom  go  out  and 
then  only  in  sedan  chairs  to  pay  a  visit  to  female 
relatives.  Private  theatricals  are  the  great  diver- 
sion at  the  holiday  periods,  when  traveling  compa- 
nies are  hired  to  give  performances.  It  is  a  life 
utterly  devoid  of  large  interests  and  ideas,  and  it 
results   in   mental  and  moral  stagnation. 

Influence  of  New  Ideas.  All  this  is  rapidly  chang- 
ing, the  new  ideas  as  to  the  equality  of  the  sexes, 
the  importance  of  female  education,  and  women's 
rights  are  exerting  a  great  influence  in  China. 

Struggle  between  Old  and  New  Views.  It  is  in- 
teresting to  note  the  struggle  between  old  inherited 
conceptions  and  the  new  ideas.  As  an  example, 
we  may  cite  the  following  instance.  A  short  time 
ago,  the  wife  of  a  young  educated  Chinese  teacher, 
in  her  grief  at  the  death  of  her  husband  determined 
to  commit  suicide,  but  before  doing  so,  she  wrote 
a  paper  beseeching  her  parents-in-law  not  to  squan- 
der any  money  upon  her  funeral  ceremonies,  but 
to  use  all  she  left,  and  what  might  be  obtained  from 
the  sale  of  her  jewels  as  a  fund  to  assist  the  new 
schools  recently  founded  for  enlightening  her 
countrymen.  The  act  of  suicide  on  the  part  of  a 
widow,  according  to  old  ideals,  was  most  merito- 
rious, for  by  so  doing  she  accompanies  her  lord  and 
master  to  Hades,  to  wait  upon  him  there,  and  she 
shows  that  her  grief  is  so  great  that  she   cannot 


126  The  Emergency  in  China 

longer  bear  to  remain  in  the  world  of  the  living. 
On  the  other  hand,  her  expressed  wish  to  have  her 
property  used  for  the  benefit  of  educational  insti- 
tutions was  an  evidence  that  she  had  been  influ- 
enced by  the  new  patriotic  conceptions  now  spread- 
ing in  China. 

Dangers  of  the  Movement.  Of  course,  the  new 
woman  is  inclined  to  go  to  extremes.  Boldness  and 
boisterousness  often  take  the  place  of  the  gentle- 
ness and  modesty  for  which  she  has  always  been 
renowned.  Unaccustomed  to  the  free  intermingling 
of  the  sexes,  there  is  grave  danger  lest  her  liberty 
may  not  too  often  lead  to  her  ruin.  All  transitions 
of  a  sudden  nature  are  full  of  peril.  Nowadays  we 
find  young  girls  making  patriotic  speeches  at 
crowded  meetings  of  men,  and  their  advocacy  of 
reforms  has  had  a  great  influence  on  the  other  sex. 

Extreme  or  Striking  Features.  During  the  revo- 
lution an  Amazon  corps  was  formed,  comprised  of 
young  girls,  and  they  were  anxious  to  take  part 
in  the  fighting.  They  have  adopted  as  their  model 
Jeanne  d'Arc,  and  quite  a  number  of  them  have 
been  martyrs  in  the  cause  of  liberty.  Chinese  suf- 
fragettes waited  upon  the  provisional  government 
in  Nanking  demanding  the  vote  for  women,  and 
resorted  to  the  same  violent  methods  of  window 
smashing  as  their  sisters  in  the  British  Isles.  One 
of  the  most  striking  signs  of  the  times  is  the  editing 
by  a  woman  in  Peking  of  a  daily  newspaper  for 
women  in  colloquial  Mandarin.  The  women  are 
active  in  the  formation  of  various  societies.     One 


Social  Transformation  127 

is  for  curbing  the  undue  authority  of  the  mother- 
in-law,  noted  for  tyranny  and  harshness.  Another 
has  a  very  comprehensive  aim,  and  is  called  "The 
Chinese  Women's  Enlightenment  Society." 

Ambitions  of  Schoolgirls  and  Musicians.  Schools 
have  been  started  for  girls,  and  the  pupils  in  them 
are  all  radicals  in  regard  to  reform.  Many  of  them 
ran  away  and  joined  the  revolution.  Foreign  mu- 
sic has  become  all  the  rage,  and  the  new  Chinese 
woman  is  desirous  of  learning  to  play  the  piano 
and  to  sing  foreign  songs.  The  story  is  told  of 
a  Chinese  lady  entertaining  her  friends  at  a  re- 
ception by  playing  and  singing  "Waltz  Me  Around 
Again  Willie."  "The  mental  vision  of  a  dignified 
Chinese  lady,  solemnly  singing  that  ridiculous  rag- 
time to  a  roomful  of  equally  dignified  and  ceremoni- 
ous guests,  would  be  irresistibly  funny  if  it  were 
not  so  pathetic."^ 

Need  of  Christian  Teaching.  Confucius  was  si- 
lent as  to  women.  From  his  point  of  view  they 
were  a  negligible  quantity  and  were  to  have  no 
personality  of  their  own.  Christianity  has  given 
the  world  the  noble  type  of  Christian  womanhood. 
In  her  days  of  change,  one  of  China's  greatest  needs 
is  the  gospel  of  Christ  which  gives  woman  her 
rightful  place,  and  at  the  same  time  ennobles  her 
character.  "All  the  railroads  that  may  be  built, 
all  the  mines  that  may  be  opened,  all  the  trade 
that  may  be  fostered  cannot  add  half  as  much 
to  the  happiness  of  the  Chinese  people  as  the  cul- 

*  Margaret  E.  Burton,  Education  of  Women  in  China,  185. 


128  The  Emergency  in  China 

tivation  of  the  greatest  of  their  undeveloped   re- 
sources— their   womanhood."^ 

4.  The  Modification  of  Social  Customs 

A  Cruel  Type  of  Slavery.  Slavery  has  existed  in 
China  for  a  long  period  of  time  and  until  recently 
the  people  have  been  utterly  callous  in  regard  to 
its  evils.  In  the  families  of  officials  and  the  wealthy 
gentry  you  will  always  find  several  slave  girls. 
They  are  the  absolute  property  of  their  owners 
and  when  treated  cruelly  have  no  redress.  This 
pernicious  social  custom  has  given  rise  to  the  kid- 
naping of  little  girls,  and  they  are  often  enticed 
away  from  their  homes  and  sold  as  slaves  to  well- 
to-do  families  or  to  the  keepers  of  brothels.  The 
fiendish  cruelty  sometimes  practised  on  these  chil- 
dren is  almost  incredible. 

Founding  of  the  Slave  Refuge.  Recently,  through 
the  efforts  of  some  missionaries  and  the  ladies  of 
the  foreign  settlement,  a  slave  refuge  has  been 
established  in  Shanghai,  which  has  as  its  object 
the  rescue  of  these  girls  and  giving  them  a  com- 
fortable home  and  a  useful  education. 

A  Sad  Incident.  A  well-known  -missionary  tells 
of  a  little  girl  of  seven  who  had  been  sold  by  her 
father  to  a  wealthy  family  in  Nanking.  "The  mite 
was  with  some  other  little  girls  set  to  wait  in  at- 
tendance at  night  on  the  Tai  Tai  to  whom  she  had 
been  sold.     Because  she  fell  asleep  she  was  beaten 

^  E.  A.  Ross,  The  Changing  Chinese,  215. 


Social  Transformation  129 

and  then  burned  with  red-hot  opium  needles.  These 
measures  having  failed  to  overcome  the  law  of  na- 
ture, her  hands  and  feet  were  tied  crosswise,  and 
she  was  left  to  starve.  Ultimately  she  was  rescued 
and  taken  to  a  hospital,  but  gangrene  set  in  and 
she  had  to  lose  both  feet  at  the  ankles,  one  hand 
at  the  wrist,  and  all  the  fingers  on  the  other  hand. 
No  native  court  outside  of  Shanghai  takes  cogniz- 
ance of  such  cases,  for  in  the  opinion  of  the  Chinese 
the  slave  girl  is  the  absolute  property  of  her  mis- 
tress to  torture  and  to  kill  if  she  so  wishes.  Slav- 
ery in  China  finds  its  victims  not  in  the  strong  and 
robust,  but  in  the  bodies  of  helpless  and  hopeless 
little  children." 

Agencies  of  Relief.  Public  opinion  is  being 
aroused  in  regard  to  the  matter.  A  short  time  ago 
a  play  given  by  some  students  of  St.  John's  Col- 
lege for  the  benefit  of  the  Slave  Refuge  depicted 
the  evils  of  the  system  so  graphically  that  many  in 
the  audience  were  moved  to  tears.  The  new  valua- 
tion now  placed  on  woman  is  helping  to  direct  at- 
tention to  this  great  blot  in  China's  social  life,  and 
as  time  goes  on  we  may  hope  to  see  it  wiped  out. 

5.  Change  in  Costume  and  Etiquette 

Philosophy  of  Clothes.  Carlyle  was  fond  of  des- 
canting on  the  philosophy  of  clothes.  Social 
changes  always  produce  new  fashions  in  wearing 
apparel,  and  so  it  has  been  in  China.  The  Oriental 
has  in  the  past  been  known  for  his  loose  flowing 


130  The  Emergency  in  China 

garments,  which  give  him  a  far  more  dignified  ap- 
pearance than  that  of  the  Westerner  with  his  tight- 
fitting  costume.  Bret  Harte  has  humorously  de- 
scribed the  number  of  things  the  Chinese  cook 
could  conceal  in  his  capacious  sleeves.  The  Orien- 
tal was  never  in  a  hurry,  and  did  not  mind  the  hin- 
drance to  rapid  locomotion  caused  by  his  long  gown, 
but  in  the  new  China  time  begins  to  be  of  value. 
The  East  has  begun  to  hustle  and  in  consequence 
we  see  a  change  in  raiment.  Tight-fitting  garments 
and  sleeves  are  now  the  order  of  the  day.  The  old 
shoe  made  of  satin  with  the  toes  sticking  out  well 
over  the  sole  has  been  discarded,  and  in  its  place 
one  made  of  leather,  well  adapted  for  walking,  has 
been  introduced.  The  new  costume  is  not  nearly 
so  picturesque  as  the  old,  and  this  is  especially  the 
case  with  the  apparel  of  the  women.  Ugly  tight 
trousers  and  close-fitting  upper  garments  have 
taken  the  place  of  a  dress  which  was  both  sensible 
and  beautiful. 

Cue-cutting.  We  are  also  witnessing  the  passing 
of  the  cue.  For  a  long  time  past  the  student  class 
has  been  anxious  to  get  rid  of  this  appendage,  and 
many  of  them  did  so  by  adopting  the  European 
dress.  Since  the  revolution,  however,  cue-cutting 
has  become  a  common  practise.  The  hated  sign  of 
Manchu  domination  had  to  go,  and  before  long  it 
will  be  impossible  to  speak  contemptuously  of 
China  as  the  land  of  pigtails.  Strangely  enough, 
many  of  the  laboring  classes  refuse  to  part  with 
their  long  hair,  and  a  good  deal   of  trouble  was 


Social  Transformation  131 

caused  when  the  new  government  attempted  to 
make  cue-cutting  compulsory.  After  the  cutting 
of  the  cues  there  was  great  demand  for  foreign  caps 
to  take  the  place  of  the  round  silk  hat  formerly 
worn  by  all.  It  is  said  that  Japan  did  an  enormous 
trade  in  foreign  hats  sent  to  China  in  the  first  few 
months  after  the  revolution. 

Change  in  Etiquette.  The  old  Chinese  etiquette 
was  cumbrous  in  the  extreme.  No  people  ever  laid 
more  emphasis  on  the  importance  of  ceremony. 
One  of  the  favorite  text-books  in  the  old  system  of 
education  was  the  Book  of  Rites,  with  rules  and 
regulations  for  the  whole  conduct  of  life.  At  the 
present  time,  in  place  of  extreme  politeness,  a 
brusqueness  and  rudeness  of  manner  are  often  in 
evidence.  There  was  so  much  that  was  hollow  and 
artificial  in  the  old  ceremonial  etiquette  that  a 
strong  reaction  against  it  has  set  in  and  for  a  time 
there  is  a  lack  of  manners.  The  natural  suavity 
and  dignity  of  the  Chinese  will  doubtless  reassert 
itself,  but  during  the  period  of  transition  one  some- 
times misses  the  old-fashioned  courtesy  for  which 
the  Chinese  were  noted. 

New  Marriage  Customs.  The  new  marriage  cus- 
toms of  China  are  significant  of  a  transition  period, 
and  we  find  that  much  of  the  old  ceremonial  has 
been  discarded.  Among  the  progressives  the  bride 
no  longer  wears  the  red  veil,  and  the  contracting 
parties  make  their  promises  to  one  another  face  to 
face  in  the  presence  of  the  invited  guests.  Accord- 
ing to  ancient  Chinese  custom  the  bride  was  treated 


132  The  Emergency  in  China 

like  a  puppet  pulled  by  strings  and  remained 
speechless  throughout  the  whole  ceremony.  The 
woman  who  accompanied  her  not  only  acted  as  her 
spokesman,  but  moved  her  arms  up  and  down  for 
her  when  she  was  saluted.  In  the  bridal  chamber, 
the  male  guests  were  allowed  great  license  in  criti- 
cizing and  making  fun  of  her  appearance,  her  own 
personal  feelings  not  being  regarded  to  the  slight- 
est extent.  It  is  good  to  see  such  customs  passing 
away,  for  they  were  the  expression  of  the  low  re- 
gard in  which  woman  under  the  older  standards  has 
been  held. 

Workings  of  Individualism.  With  the  freer  in- 
termingling of  the  sexes,  marriages  are  now  often 
made  as  the  result  of  personal  choice  on  the  part 
of  the  contracting  parties,  and  the  power  of  the  go- 
betweens  is  on  the  wane.  The  educated  young  man 
demands  the  right  to  see  and  know  the  girl  who 
is  to  be  his  life  partner,  and  the  new  independent 
young  woman  insists  on  being  consulted  before  she 
is  disposed  of  in  the  matrimonial  market.  Formerly 
what  was  for  the  good  of  the  family  was  the  only 
consideration,  and  so  the  wills  of  the  young  people 
were  subordinated  to  those  of  the  elders.  The  rise 
of  individualism  now  places  the  emphasis  on  the 
likes  and  dislikes  of  those  who  enter  into  the  union. 
Of  course,  in  the  treaty  ports  where  the  civiliza- 
tion of  the  East  and  the  West  meet,  the  Chinese  are 
more  progressive  than  in  the  interior,  but  through 
the  influence  of  the  press,  and  the  freer  communi- 
cation between  different  parts  of  the  country,  the 


Social  Transformation  133 

new   ideas   in    regard   to   marriage   are   spreading 
rapidly. 

Spirit  of  Radicalism.  In  the  work  of  reform, 
young  China  is  imbued  with  a  spirit  of  radicalism. 
It  is  as  if  they  would  say  to  the  rest  of  the  world 
in  a  defiant  spirit,  we  will  adopt  no  half  measures. 
Some  preach  openly  that  China  is  to  be  an  example 
to  other  nations  by  going  further  in  social  develop- 
ment than  any  of  them  have  dared  to  go.  Out  and 
out  socialism  and  many  of  the  ideas  of  the  revo- 
lutionary period  in  France  are  advocated.  Looser 
ideas  in  regard  to  marriage  are  gaining  in  favor 
with  the  most  advanced  reformers,  and  divorce  is 
to  be  made  easier.  The  wildest  notions  are  readily 
assimilated,  and  all  restraints  are  cast  aside.  At 
such  a  time  she  is  like  a  ship  without  a  compass  and 
appeals  strongly  to  the  sympathy  of  those  who 
know  what  she  needs  to  guide  her  safely  in  her 
new  social  development.  Civilization  may  be  said 
to  be  at  the  crossroads  in  China,  and  now  is  the 
time  to  determine  whether  it  is  to  be  Christian 
or  unchristian. 

6.  Introduction  of  Physical  Culture 

Former  Absence  of  Athletics.  The  last  feature  in 
the  social  transformation  which  we  shall  mention 
is  the  introduction  of  physical  culture.  In  years 
gone  by  one  of  the  great  contrasts  between  the 
youth  of  the  East  and  the  West  was  the  lack  of 
athletic   sports  and   outdoor   exercises  among   the 


134  The  Emergency  in  China 

former.  The  children  of  the  East  have  always  been 
fond  of  play  and  have  many  excellent  games,  but 
when  they  passed  from  childhood  and  entered  on 
the  life  of  the  student  all  vigorous  forms  of  exer- 
cise were  discontinued.  It  was  considered  undigni- 
fied for  the  student  to  appear  without  his  long 
gown.  His  school  hours  were  long,  leaving  him  lit- 
tle time  for  recreation,  and  his  teacher  frowned 
upon  anything  that  looked  like  levity.  The  result 
was  to  make  him  a  little  old  man,  and  to  suppress 
in  an  unnatural  way  all  his  instincts  for  physical 
activity.  He  generally  grew  up  weak  and  anemic, 
and  developed  no  biceps  to  which  he  could  point 
with  pride  as  the  Western  boy  does.  Instead  of 
being  manly,  he  was  apt  to  become  effeminate. 

A  Difficult  Start.  The  writer  well  remembers 
his  first  attempt  to  introduce  sports  into  St.  John's 
College.  When  a  notice  had  to  be  written  urging 
the  students  to  take  part,  the  Chinese  scribe  was  at 
a  loss  how  to  word  it  until  the  brilliant  idea  struck 
him  that  in  the  days  of  the  ancient  worthies  the 
young  men  of  China  had  actually  competed  in  arch- 
ery. A  good  deal  of  coaxing  was  necessary  to  in- 
duce the  lads  to  doff  their  long  gowns  so  that  they 
might  be  less  trammeled  in  the  running  of  races. 

Growth  of  Sports.  A  wonderful  transformation 
has  taken  place  within  the  last  few  years.  We  now 
find  that  in  almost  every  school  in  the  country, 
a  place  is  found  for  athletics.  In  the  larger  insti- 
tutions, the  authorities  sometimes  grant  a  three 
days'  holiday  when  the  annual  date  for  sports  comes 


CHINESE  CADETS 

Tug  of  war 
At  work  on  the  bars 


[P  134] 


Social  Transformation  135 

round, — one  for  preparation,  one  for  the  contest, 
and  one  to  enable  the  wearied  athletes  to  recup- 
erate from  their  exertions.  On  the  day  of  the  field 
and  track  meets,  the  Chinese  youth  may  now  be 
seen  clad  in  the  light  raiment  of  the  athletes  of  the 
West,  Some  of  them  take  these  sports  very  seri- 
ously, and  go  through  a  long  period  of  training,  and 
some  very  creditable  records  have  already  been 
made.  Football,  baseball,  basketball,  and  tennis 
are  grooving  in  popularity,  and  are  entered  into 
with  great  zest. 

National  Athletic  Meet.  In  connection  with  the 
Nanking  Industrial  Exposition,  a  national  athletic 
meet  was  held,  and  young  men  assembled  from  all 
parts  of  China  to  compete  with  one  another.  It 
was  the  first  occurrence  of  anything  of  this  nature, 
and  marked  a  new  era  in  China's  attitude  toward 
physical  culture. 

Cause  of  the  New  Interest.  A  simple  explanation 
accounts  for  the  change,  for  it  is  very  closely  con- 
nected with  the  rise  of  the  national  spirit.  China 
must  be  strong  in  order  that  she  may  resist  her 
enemies,  and  to  accomplish  this  the  rising  genera- 
tion must  be  improved  physically.  Of  course  the 
young  men  have  found  pleasure  in  this  new  form 
of  recreation,  but  the  moving  cause  has  been  the 
philosophy  of  the  survival  of  the  fittest,  and  a  de- 
sire to  increase  the  virility  of  the  race.  For  some- 
what the  same  reason,  in  girls'  schools  calisthenics 
and  physical  drill  have  assumed  a  regular  place  in 
the  curriculum. 


136  The  Emergency  in  China 

Results.  While  this  new  departure  of  course  is 
advantageous  from  a  hygienic  point  of  view,  it  also 
produces  valuable  moral  results,  and  is  certain  to 
have  a  most  beneficial  effect  upon  the  characters 
of  the  young  men  and  women.  In  February,  1913, 
the  first  Far  Eastern  Olympic  sports  were  held  in 
Manila.  Among  those  who  competed  was  a  team 
from  China  made  up  of  college  students.  They 
made  a  very  creditable  showing,  and  their  appear- 
ance on  such  an  occasion  showed  that  China  was 
at  last  awake  in  regard  to  the  necessity  of  physical 
training.  A  National  Amateur  Athletic  Association 
has  recently  been  formed,  and  hereafter  we  may 
confidently  expect  greater  interest  in  manly  sport. 
This  is  most  desirable,  for  in  the  past  a  large  pro- 
portion of  the  young  men  have  spent  their  leisure 
hours  in  feasting,  gambling,  theater-going,  and  gen- 
eral dissipation. 

A  New  Type  Developing.  From  this  imperfect 
review  of  some  of  the  important  social  changes 
now  taking  place,  one  can  perceive  how  everything 
has  been  thrown  into  the  melting  pot.  As  the  out- 
come of  it  all,  we  may  expect  that  the  Chinese  of 
the  future  will  differ  in  many  ways  from  the  Chi- 
nese of  the  past.  Books  describing  social  customs 
in  China  will  soon  be  out  of  date,  and  we  shall  be 
obliged  to  modify  many  of  our  ideas  in  regard  to 
Chinese  characteristics. 


Social  Transformation  137 

IMPORTANT   QUOTATIONS 

Typical  Arguments  by  a  Supporter  of  Business  Interests 

In  1910,  however,  stimulated  by  the  misguided  zeal  of  fanat- 
ical enthusiasts,  Young  China  proceeded  to  organize  a  violent 
agitation  for  the  immediate  suppression  of  the  Indian  trade. 
,  .  .  The  agitation  organized  against  the  Indian  opium 
trade  by  well-meaning  but  short-sighted  missionary  bodies  con- 
cerned itself  frankly  with  moral  glory  and  righteousness,  to  the 
exclusion  of  all  other  considerations.     .     .    . 

As  a  stimulant  and  narcotic,  under  certain  conditions  of 
climate  and  labor,  opium  taken  in  moderation  is  not  only 
harmless  but  directly  beneficial.  The  Straits  Settlements  Re- 
port, which  embodied  a  systematic  attempt  to  render  a  "com- 
plete and  impartial  account  of  the  question  of  opiurn-smoking," 
emphasizes  the  important  fact,  which  the  Anti-Opium  Socie- 
ties generally  ignore,  that  the  vast  majority  of  opium-smokers 
are,  and  remain,  moderate  consumers. 

It  has  been  objected  by  the  Anti-Opium  Societies  that  the 
Singapore  Commission's  Report  embodies  the  opinion  of  a 
colony  whose  ill-gotten  gains  of  revenue  are  threatened  at 
their  source;  but,  even  admitting  that  it  may  reflect  bias  of 
class,  its  views  are  based  on  methodical  procedure  of  evidence 
and  therefore  entitled  to  respect.     .    .     . 

If  the  analogy  [with  alcohol]  be  recognized  as  valid,  the 
complete  suppression  of  opium-smoking  in  China  becornes, 
humanly  speaking,  impossible.  To  achieve  it,  the  suppression 
of  poppy-growing  will  not  suffice :  we  must  exterminate  the 
Chinese  race.  For  the  poppy,  "flaunting  her  immoral  beauty  in 
the  light  of  high  heaven,"  is  not  to  blame  for  man's  abuse  of 
one  of  the  most  beneficent  products  of  nature's  laboratory. 
The  thing  to  be  rooted  out  is  not  the  flower  of  the  field,  but 
the  original  sin  in  human  nature.     .     .     . 

— J.  O.  P.  Bland,  Recent  Events  and  Present  Policies  in 
China. 

Our  home  life  is  too  self-satisfying  and  self-contained.  Our 
average  man  lives  content  if  he  can  find  happiness  in  his  own 
home.  As  a  rule  he  does  not  give  a  thought  to  the  well-being 
of  his  fellow  townsmen,  his  fellow  countrymen,  and  his  own 
motherland.  In  this  indifference  lies  the  danger  of  our  na- 
tional life.  It  is  the  duty  of  every  citizen  who  is  educated 
and  who  belongs  to  the  higher  and  middle  class  to  take  inter- 
est in  the  civic  life  of  his  town.  If  every  one  of  our  country- 
men hitherto  had  taken  certain  interest  in  the  government  we 
would  not  have  to  deplore  the  present  condition  of  our  coun- 


138  The  Emergency  in  China 

try  now.  The  majority  of  our  people  do  not  take  an  iota  of 
interest  where  our  country  is  drifting  to.  This  is  why  we 
have  been  charged  with  the  lack  of  patriotism. 

Any  new  theories,  ideals,  and  system  that  involve  the  inter- 
est of  the  common  weal  and  of  future  generations  are  either 
totally  ignored  or  violently  opposed.  Conservatism  is  so 
deeply  rooted  in  us  and  petty  self-interest  so  caressingly  cher- 
ished that  they  amount  to  obsession.  The  cause  of  this  indif- 
ference, which  amounts  to  a  crime,  is  the  lack  of  social  and 
political  organizations  planned  and  carried  out  in  the  same 
manner.  The  absence  of  these  institutions  to  formulate  public 
opinion  and  direct  concerted  action  has  given  rise  to  so  many 
mushroom  growth  associations,  each  of  which  has  a  visionary 
at  its  head  with  a  certain  number  of  followers  who  preach 
in  many  instances  a  false  doctrine;  with  the  result  that  at 
every  step  the  politician  finds  his  path  strewn  with  sharp  stone 
chips. 

— Editorial  in  the  World's  Chinese  Students'  Journal  (writ- 
ten by  a  young  Chinese). 

A  third  significant  fact  is  the  emphasis  given  in  current  Chi- 
nese thought  to  individualism  on  the  one  hand  and  altruism 
on  the  other. 

The  unit  of  the  nation  is  no  longer  the  family,  but  the  indi- 
vidual. Personal  rights  and  liberties  are  talked  about  and 
claimed  for  men  and  women  in  a  way  that  is  enough  to  make 
the  sages  turn  in  their  graves.  Among  the  students  and  young 
politicians  in  Peking  and  other  cities  there  are  many  ardent 
socialists,  whose  ideas  of  equality  and  fraternity  are  most 
pronounced,  and  who  refuse  to  use  or  accept  distinctive  titles. 
Ministers  of  state  and  pastors  of  churches  are  addressed  as 
Mister,  whilst  girl  students  are  ladies  equally  with  the  wives 
and  daughters  of  the  oldest  and  proudest  families. 

— Rev.  G.  H.  Bondfield,  Chinese  Recorder,  January,  1913. 

But  let  us  look  more  directly  at  the  present  position  of 
women  in  China.  They  are  being  emancipated  after  centuries 
of  serfdom,  ignorance,  and  derogatory  treatment.  They  have 
new  and  great  perils  confronting  them,  and  if  they  are  not 
wisely  guided  now  their  freedom  will  mean  disaster.  Old 
restraints  are  removed,  and  of  the  restrictions  of  Western 
etiquette  they  are  totally  ignorant.  Take,  for  example,  the 
question  of  betrothal.  From  the  barbarous  custom  of  buying 
and  selling  a  girl  bride  by  means  of  a  money-loving  agent,  the 
pendulum  is  inclined  to  swing  to  the  other  extreme.  Not  long 
ago  a  young  student  went  to  the  headmistress  of  a  large  girls' 


Social  Transformation  139 

school  in  an  American  mission  and  questioned  her  as  to  the 
qualifications  of  one  of  the  pupils,  explaining  that  the  girl  had 
written  to  ask  him  to  marry  her.  When  the  mistress  ex- 
pressed surprise,  his  answer  was,  "But  is  not  that  what  you 
do  in  America?"  Or,  again,  some  girls  in  Shanghai  determined 
to  follow  the  methods  of  Western  ladies  in  raising  money  for 
charitable  purposes,  and  held  a  sale  of  work  and  an  evening 
entertainment  in  certain  gardens ;  it  was  sad  indeed  to  learn 
afterwards  that  most  of  those  girls  were  morally  ruined  that 
day.  One  hears  of  girls'  schools  giving  entertainments  to 
mixed  audiences,  and  of  young  men  and  women  together  get- 
ting up  fetes,  smoking  cigarettes,  and  traveling  in  trains,  and 
when  one  remembers  that  only  a  few  years  ago  boys  and  girls 
might  not  even  see  each  other  unless  they  were  closely  related, 
one  trembles  for  these  unmothered  and  undisciplined  girls  who 
have  no  knowledge  of  Christ  and  his  teaching. 

— Miss  Lambert,,  The  Christian  Education  of  Women  in  the 
East. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  as  to  the  immense  influence  of  the 
daily  paper.  I  will  refer  to  a  specific  case.  About  four  years 
ago  some  enthusiastic  Confucianists  suggested  the  erection  of 
a  temple  in  Hongkong,  to  be  consecrated  to  the  sage.  The 
Chung  Kwok  Po  opposed  the  idea,  and  wrote  three  slashing 
articles  in  defense  of  its  attitude.  The  result  was  that  the 
enterprise  was  abandoned.  There  is  no  doubt  that  the  press 
has  assisted  mightily  in  the  revolution  that  is  now  progressing. 
It  has  worked  with  tremendous  energy  to  create  a  solidarity, 
and  the  repeated  assertion  that  the  Chinese  are  400,000,000,  and 
that  they  are  uterine  brothers,  has  been  hurled  at  the  people 
till  the  Chinese  have  come  to  feel  the  magic  of  conscious 
strength.  The  papers  have  constantly  kept  before  the  people 
that  the  great  powers  have  seized  portions  of  the  country,  though 
latterly  the  officials  have  been  more  blamed  than  foreigners 
for  this  national  disgrace.  In  China  readers  rule.  It  matters 
little  that  few  can  read.  Those  who  can  read  are  quick  to 
inform  those  who  cannot,  and  sooner  or  later  the  masses  know 
what  the  classes  have  learned.  The  influence  of  the  paper  is 
felt  in  the  inland  cities.  Every  mail  delivers  its  parcel,  and 
so  the  events  of  the  Middle  Kingdom,  as  well  as  the  doings 
in  Western  lands,  are  all  known.  I  believe  it  is  impossible  to 
appraise  fully  the  influence  of  the  daily  paper,  or  accurately 
gage  the  mass  of  information,  ranging  from  the  revolutions  in 
Turkey  and  Portugal  to  the  strikes  in  England,  that  is  brought 
to  the  minds  of  their  readers. 

— Dr.  a.  p.  Parker,  Chinese  Mission  Year  Book,  1912. 


NEW  EDUCATION 


CHAPTER   V 

NEW    EDUCATION 

As  link  after  link  is  added  to  that  chain  of  com- 
munication which  brings  China  nearer  to  us  than 
Europe  was  before  the  rise  of  steam  navigation,  it  is 
interesting  to  know  that  a  mental  awakening  is  tak- 
ing place  among  the  people  of  China,  by  which  the 
Chinese  mind  will  be  brought  proportionally  nearer 
to  our  own. 

— W.  A.  P.  Martin 

The  Old  Education.  To  appreciate  fully  the 
magnitude  of  the  task  which  China  has  undertaken, 
and  to  get  some  adequate  idea  of  the  difficulties  to 
be  overcome,  it  will  be  necessary  to  sketch  in  out- 
line the  old  educational  system  as  it  existed  before 
the  reform  movement  began.  We  must  bear  in 
mind  that  until  a  few  years  ago  there  were  no 
government  schools,  and  that  education  was  left 
entirely  to  private  enterprise. 

Examination  System.  The  part  played  by  the 
government  was  the  establishment  of  a  series  of 
examinations,  corresponding  in  many  ways  to  the 
civil  service  competitive  examinations  of  the  West. 
One  of  the  chief  aims  of  the  private  schools  was  to 
train  scholars  to  pass  these  examinations  success- 

143 


144  The  Emergency  in  China 

fully,  and  thus  render  them  eligible  for  service  in 
the  government.  The  examination  had  the  effect 
of  standardizing  the  educational  system,  and  for 
the  most  part  the  same  subjects  were  taught,  and 
the  same  text-books  used  in  all  the  schools.  Any 
one  could  set  up  as  a  schoolteacher,  and  a  great 
many  scholars  who  had  secured  the  first  degree  in 
the  government  examinations  and  a  host  of  those 
who  had  tried  and  failed  were  attracted  to  this  pro- 
fession. The  pupils  paid  small  fees,  and  the  life  of 
a  teacher  was  both  penurious  and  laborious. 

The  course  of  study  pursued  in  the  schools  was 
divided  into  three  grades.  First  came  the  commit- 
ting to  memory  the  canonical  books  (the  Four 
Books  and  the  Five  Classics),  and  the  learning  to 
write  characters.  Then  followed  a  period  when 
the  text-books  were  explained  to  the  pupils,  and 
they  received  their  first  lessons  in  the  art  of  com- 
position. Lastly,  they  were  taught  to  read  more 
widely,  especially  collections  of  essays  of  famous 
scholars,  and  to  compose  the  sort  of  essay  and  poem 
which  they  would  be  required  to  produce  at  a  gov- 
ernment examination.  Many  of  the  pupils  never 
advanced  beyond  the  first  or  second  stage,  but 
those  ambitious  of  passing  the  examinations  were 
bound  to  take  the  whole  course. 

First  Degree.  The  government  examination  sys- 
tem began  as  far  back  as  the  Tang  dynasty,  6i8 
A.  D.,  and  was  continued  from  that  time  until  about 
six  years  ago.  The  examinations  for  the  first  de- 
gree were  held  annually  in  district  cities.     About 


New  Education  145 

one  per  cent,  of  the  candidates  was  successful  and 
obtained  the  degree  of  Siu-tsai  (Budding  Talent) 
equivalent  in  some  ways  to  the  Western  A.  B.,  but 
not  signifying  at  all  the  general  range  of  knowledge 
possessed  by  a  graduate  of  a  Western  college. 

Second  Degree.  The  examinations  for  the  second 
degree  were  held  triennially  in  the  provincial  capi- 
tals, and  only  those  who  had  obtained  the  first  were 
eligible  as  candidates.  These  were  much  severer 
tests.  The  candidates  were  immured  in  the  little 
cells  of  the  examination  halls  for  three  periods  of 
three  days  each,  and  were  put  to  a  physical  and 
mental  strain  often  greater  than  human  nature 
could  endure.  From  time  to  time  of  a  morning 
one  or  more  would  be  taken  out  dead.  Here  again 
the  percentage  of  those  who  passed  was  low,  only 
one  out  of  a  hundred  gaining  the  coveted  degree 
of  Chii-jin  (Deserving  of  Promotion).  Bearing  in 
mind  what  we  have  said  about  the  first  degree,  we 
may  compare  the  second  to  the  A.  M.  degree  of  an 
American  university. 

Third  Degree.  The  examinations  for  the  third 
degree  were  held  triennially  in  Peking.  Those  who 
had  secured  the  second  were  eligible  as  candidates, 
and  if  they  could  pass  the  third  test  received  the 
degree  of  Chin-shih  (Fit  for  Office).  The  highest 
on  the  list  were  admitted  into  the  famous  College 
of  the  Hanlin  (the  Forest  of  Pencils),  and  some- 
times were  appointed  to  high  posts  in  the  govern- 
ment. 

Nature  of  the  Education.     From  this  brief  out- 


^ 


146  The  Emergency  in  China 

line  it  will  be  seen  that  the  whole  system  was  in- 
tended to  train  men  for  public  service.  The  idea 
of  knowledge  as  a  thing  to  be  pursued  for  its  own 
sake  was  obscured.  The  possibility  of  rising  to  be 
influential  officials  stirred  the  ambition  of  a  host 
of  youths,  and  induced  them  to  submit  to  this  long 
process  of  intellectual  training.  The  old  education 
was  concerned  entirely  with  Chinese  history, 
poetry,  ethics,  and  government.  There  was  no 
science,  nothing  of  the  history  or  geography  of 
other  nations,  and  no  mathematics.  The  result  was 
to  turn  out  young  men  thoroughly  versed  in  the 
Confucian  ethics,  Mencian  politics,  and  the  history 
of  China,  with  ability  to  write  an  elegant  literary 
style  and  to  compose  stiff  and  stereotyped  verses. 
Having  formed  a  most  exaggerated  estimate  of  the 
value  of  their  own  classics,  they  remained  ignorant 
of  the  vast  stores  of  knowledge  acquired  by  other 
nations. 

High  Regard  for  Scholars.  The  high  esteem  in 
which  the  scholar  of  this  type  has  been  held  has 
also  been  most  injurious.  The  four  classes  have 
always  been  rated  as  follows:  Scholars,  husband- 
men, artisans,  and  merchants.  It  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  for  ages  there  have  been  no  new  discov- 
eries in  science,  no  useful  inventions,  and  no  new 
developments  in  industry.  A  people  who  proudly 
claim  that  in  the  past  they  gave  the  world  the  art 
of  printing,  the  mariners'  compass,  and  gunpowder, 
have  become  sterile  largely  through  their  mistaken 
ideas  as  to  education. 


New  Education  147 

Amount  of  Illiteracy  in  China.  The  Chinese  are 
referred  to  as  an  educated  people.  The  statement 
is  very  misleading.  It  would  be  true  to  say  that 
the  Chinese  hold  what  they  have  considered  to  be 
education  in  the  highest  esteem,  and  that  they  look 
up  to  the  scholar  with  the  greatest  respect  and 
reverence,  but  the  system  which  has  prevailed  for 
all  these  centuries  only  resulted  in  giving  education 
to  the  chosen  few.  Among  the  masses  there  is  a 
large  amount  of  illiteracy.  It  would  be  a  fair  esti- 
mate to  say  that  only  one  in  twenty  of  the  male 
sex  can  read  understandingly.  The  education  of 
girls  was  almost  entirely  neglected,  except  among 
the  wealthier  classes,  and  the  woman  who  could 
read  with  intelligence  and  write  an  essay  or  a  poem 
was  regarded  as  a  very  rare  phenomenon.  Among 
artisans  and  small  shopkeepers  the  amount  of  edu- 
cation possessed  was  only  sufficient  to  enable  them 
to  read  a  few  characters  and  to  keep  accounts. 
Nothing  like  the  knowledge  making  it  possible  for 
them  to  read  newspapers  has  been  acquired  by  the 
vast  majority. 

Outcome  and  Call  for  Change.  The  inadequate 
system  of  education  has  left  the  majority  in  appal- 
ling ignorance  and  helps  us  to  understand  one  of 
the  reasons  for  China's  former  opposition  to  prog- 
ress. Having  this  picture  as  the  background,  we 
can  now  proceed  to  describe  the  successive  steps 
in  the  introduction  of  the  new  education.  The  de- 
sire for  reform  first  showed  itself  in  connection  with 
the  course  of  study.     Contact  with  Western  coun- 


148  The  Emergency  in  China 

tries  opened  the  eyes  of  the  Chinese  to  the  fact  that 
those  who  aspired  to  be  the  future  officials  of  the 
empire  were  not  receiving  the  sort  of  training  to 
make  them  most  efficient.  Something  more  was 
needed  than  the  ability  to  write  eight-legged  ^  es- 
says and  to  compose  lines  of  poetry. 

Reforms  in.  Examination  System,  1884,  1885. 
Among  the  reforms  suggested  after  the  war  with 
France  (1884,  1885)  was  the  introduction  of  mathe- 
matics and  elementary  science  in  the  government 
examination  system,  but  owing  to  the  fact  that  the 
literary  chancellors  who  presided  over  the  examina- 
tions were  themselves  entirely  ignorant  of  the  new 
subjects,  very  little  was  actually  accomplished  in 
the  way  of  broadening  the  old  curriculum. 

Dr.  Yung  Wing's  Educational  Mission.  As  has 
already  been  stated  in  another  chapter,  in  1872  a 
detachment  of  Chinese  students  was  sent  to  the 
United  States  under  the  direction  of  Dr.  Yung 
Wing.  It  was  proposed  to  give  them  a  thorough 
education  in  American  schools  and  colleges,  and 
it  was  hoped  upon  their  return  to  their  own  coun- 
try they  would  be  influential  in  the  promotion  of 
progress  and  reform.  Unfortunately  the  experi- 
ment was  never  carried  out  to  the  end.  The  con- 
servatives in  Peking  raised  the  cry  that  these 
young  men  were  in  danger  of  becoming  denational- 

^The  essays  were  so  called,  because  divided  into  eight 
heads  in  an  artificial  manner.  The  style  was  stilted,  sentences 
of  four  or  six  characters  alternated,  and  each  pair  of  ten 
characters  had  to  be  antithetical. 


New  Education  149 

ized,  and  that  they  would  become  leaders  of  rebel- 
lion in  China.  Accordingly  all  were  recalled,  just 
as  they  had  reached  the  stage  when  they  were  ready 
to  enter  college. 

Reforms  of  1898.  The  next  step  in  the  change  of 
the  educational  system  was  in  connection  with  the 
reforms  instituted  by  the  late  Emperor  Kuang  Hsu, 
in  1898.  The  young  emperor  was  eager  to  modify 
as  far  as  possible  the  old  classical  examinations, 
and  he  issued  a  decree  that  henceforth  those  com- 
peting for  degrees  must  have  "a  knowledge  of  an- 
cient and  modern  history,  information  in  regard  to 
the  present-day  state  of  aifairs,  with  special  ref- 
erence to  the  governments  and  institutions  of  the 
countries  of  the  five  great  continents,  and  a  knowl- 
edge of  the  arts  and  sciences  thereof." 

Service  of  Mission  Schools.  In  the  proposals  of 
1885  and  1898  nothing  was  said  about  the  estab- 
lishment of  new  schools,  but  the  emphasis  was  laid 
upon  the  importance  of  recasting  the  examination 
system.  Military  and  naval  academies  were 
founded,  and  a  few  government  colleges,  but  there 
was  no  thought  of  a  system  of  schools  for  the 
whole  country  from  the  primary  grade  to  the  uni- 
versity. Up  to  a  comparatively  recent  period  the 
only  schools  in  China  offering  a  liberal  education 
were  those  established  by  missionaries.  In  the  in- 
tellectual enlightenment  of  China  as  in  many  other 
things  the  Christian  missionaries  may  justly  claim 
to  be  the  pioneers. 

The  Decree  of  1905.     After  the  Boxer  outbreak,. 


150  The  Emergency  in  China 

upon  the  return  of  the  court  from  Sianfu  to  Pe- 
king, the  reform  measures  so  strenuously  opposed 
only  a  few  years  before,  were  vigorously  advocated, 
and  in  1905  we  find  the  Empress  Dowager  issuing 
an  edict  abolishing  in  toto  the  ancient  system  of 
government  examinations. 

Memorial  to  the  Throne.  This  was  in  reply  to 
the  Memorial  presented  to  the  throne  by  H.  E. 
Chang  Chih-tung,  at  that  time  viceroy  of  Hupeh 
and  Hunan.  This  venerable  statesman  had  previ- 
ously written  a  book  which  created  quite  a  furore, 
and  which  has  been  translated  into  English  with 
the  title  of  China's  Only  Hope.  Its  title  in  Chinese 
were  the  characters  meaning  An  Exhortation  to 
Learn,  and  it  was  a  clarion  call  to  the  people  of 
China  to  sit  as  disciples  at  the  feet  of  the  West 
so  that  they  might  discover  how  to  save  their  coun- 
try. 

New  System  Adopted.  In  his  memorial  he  pro- 
posed the  establishment  of  a  central  university  in 
Peking,  affiliated  colleges,  technical  and  normal 
schools  in  each  provincial  capital,  high  schools  in 
each  prefectural  city,  and  middle  and  primary 
schools  in  each  departmental  city  and  village.  He 
drew  up  courses  of  study,  regulations  as  to  disci- 
pline, and  recommendations  as  to  the  method  of 
establishing  schools.  His  work  when  printed  ex- 
tended over  five  volumes.  The  plan  was  immedi- 
ately adopted,  and  thus  the  Chinese  government 
committed  itself  to  the  introduction  of  a  national 
system  of  education.    Western  learning  had  at  last 


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152  The  Emergency  in  China 

secured  the  seal  of  approval  from  the  highest  in 
authority. 

Grading  of  Schools.  The  grading  of  schools  was 
as  follows:  i.  the  Kindergarten  and  Primary 
School ;  2.  the  First  Grade  Elementary  School ;  3. 
the  High  Grade  Elementary  School ;  4.  the  Middle 
School ;  5.  the  High  School ;  6.  the  University.  The 
nomenclature  is  somewhat  different  from  that  to 
which  we  are  accustomed,  the  middle  school  cor- 
responding very  closely  to  the  American  high 
school,  the  high  school  to  the  first  years  of  the 
American  college  or  the  German  gymnasium,  and 
the  university  following  the  German  plan  and  con- 
sisting of  eight  special  faculties. 

Relation  to  the  Old  Learning.  In  compiling  the 
course  of  study  the  attempt  was  made  to  preserve 
a  place  for  the  classical  and  historical  literature  of 
China  "thus  enabling  the  new  education  to  attach 
itself  to  the  earlier  system  which  centered  around 
the  civil  service  examinations."  This  makes  it 
necessary  for  the  student  to  spend  a  good  many 
hours  on  his  own  language  and  literature  in  addi- 
tion to  acquiring  Western  learning.  The  burden 
is  far  too  heavy,  and  is  bound  to  result  in  a  good 
deal  of  superficiality.  If,  however,  in  drawing  up 
the  schedule  no  provision  had  been  made  for  the 
old  learning,  it  would  have  been  regarded  at  that 
time  as  altogether  too  revolutionary.  What  will 
be  the  fate  of  the  old  learning,  time  alone  can  show. 
It  is  absurd  to  expect  the  same  excellence  in  liter- 
ary style  from  the  modern  student.     Th«i  door  of 


New  Education  153 

real  knowledge  has  been  opened  to  him,  and  he  can 
no  longer  spare  the  time  or  mental  energy  to  secure 
what  was  a  superficial  acquirement  of  little  real 
value. 

Need  of  Alphabet.  Probably  the  most  difficult 
problem  the  Chinese  educationalist  has  to  solve  is 
that  of  combining  the  new  knowledge  with  the 
old.  Some  way  must  be  devised  by  which  with 
less  expenditure  of  time  he  can  learn  to  read  and 
write  his  own  language  and  furnish  himself  with 
the  tools  he  needs  for  the  acquisition  of  further 
knowledge.  The  Japanese  have  overcome  the  diffi- 
culty by  Inventing  symbols  which  serve  the  pur- 
pose of  an  alphabet,  and  it  may  be  that  the  Chi- 
nese will  be  forced  to  adopt  a  similar  expedient. 

Putting  New  System  into  Operation.  The  sys- 
tem having  been  settled,  the  next  question  was  how 
to  put  it  into  operation.  It  was  and  still  is  an  un- 
dertaking of  tremendous  proportions  and  a  most 
costly  experiment.  The  Empress  Dowager  issued 
the  edict,  "Let  there  be  these  new  schools,"  and  it 
became  the  duty  of  officials  and  people  to  see  that 
the  mandate  was  carried  out.  The  viceroys  and 
governors  of  the  provinces  were  obliged  to  as- 
sume the  responsibility,  and  funds  were  secured 
in  the  following  ways.  Some  schools  were  founded 
by  the  officials  themselves,  who  squeezed  the 
money  needed  out  of  the  provincial  revenues, 
others  were  founded  by  funds  obtained  from  the 
people  as  a  tax  for  this  purpose.  The  gentry  were 
encour^ed  to   use  their  wealth   in   this   way,  and 


154  The  Emergency  in  China 

the  building  of  a  school  and  provision  for  its  sup- 
port were  considered  deeds  of  merit  and  were  re- 
warded by  the  bestowal  of  official  rank — the  right 
to  wear  the  blue  or  red  button  on  the  official  hat. 
Contrast  between  Old  and  New  Education.  "En- 
thusiasm for  the  new  education  spread  like  wild- 
fire/' In  many  places  the  old  examination  halls 
were  razed  to  the  ground,  and  the  sites  used  for 
the  erection  of  the  new  school  buildings.  Temples 
were  often  confiscated  and  converted  to  educational 
purposes.  When  the  globe-trotter  visits  Nanking, 
he  is  still  shown  as  one  of  the  sights  the  famous  old 
examination  halls.  He  wanders  up  and  down  the 
narrow  lanes  between  the  rows  of  little  cells  and 
in  imagination  recalls  the  scenes  formerly  enacted 
there.  Now  they  are  rapidly  falling  into  decay  and 
before  long  they  will  have  disappeared  forever. 
Leaving  the  vast  enclosure,  a  short  walk  takes  him 
to  the  new  educational  institutions.  There  he  finds 
modern  buildings  crowded  with  young  students  in 
uniform,  eager  for  the  new  learning.  The  contrast 
is  striking,  and  he  realizes  something  of  the  signifi- 
cance of  the  educational  revolution.  The  intel- 
lectual force  of  China  has  now  been  directed  into 
the  same  channels  as  those  in  which  that  of  West- 
ern nations  flows.  In  the  course  of  a  few  years 
this  must  bring  about  startling  results.  Just  as 
we  have  learned  to  make  use  of  the  former  ne- 
glected energy  of  Niagara  Falls,  so  the  Chinese 
have  learned  to  use  their  wasted  mental  energy 
in  a  more  productive  manner. 


New  Education  155 

Some  Difficulties.  One  of  the  greatest  difficulties 
experienced  in  the  establishment  of  the  new  system 
was  the  securing  of  teachers.  As  many  as  fifteen 
thousand  young  men,  representative  of  the  best 
type  of  learning  under  the  old  system  entered  the 
schools  of  Japan,  hoping  to  take  a  short  cut  to  a 
knowledge  of  Western  science.  After  a  short  pe- 
riod a  reaction  set  in,  and  now  the  number  has 
dwindled  to  three  or  four  thousand.  The  Chinese 
have  begun  to  realize  the  importance  of  thorough- 
ness. 

Supply  of  Text-books.  Another  great  need  was 
that  of  text-books.  To  supply  this  some  enterpris- 
ing Chinese  established  the  Commercial  Press  in 
Shanghai.  The  volume  of  its  business  has  steadily 
increased  and  is  an  indication  of  the  demand  for 
the  new  learning.  More  than  one  hundred  transla- 
tors are  employed,  who  adapt  books  from  English 
and  Japanese,  and  invent  new  Chinese  terminology 
for  scientific  expressions.  From  this  press  issue 
primers,  readers,  histories,  geographies,  arithmetics, 
algebras,  geometries,  and  books  on  all  the  natural, 
mental,  and  social  sciences.  Owing  to  the  great 
demand  for  a  knowledge  of  the  English  language, 
English  grammars,  lessons  in  conversation,  and 
readers  are  published,  and  editions  of  the  works  of 
great  English  authors  with  notes  and  a  Chinese 
glossary.  In  this  way,  Shakespeare,  Scott,  Dickens, 
and  George  Eliot  are  becoming  known  in  the 
schools  of  China. 

Progress  Made  before  the  Revolution.    The  prog- 


156  The  Emergency  in  China 

ress  made  by  the  new  system  of  education  may  be 
learned  from  the  statistical  reports  submitted  to 
the  throne  in  1908  and  1910,  and  a  comparison 
between  them  is  interesting: 

1908  1910 

Number  of  Schools  in  Provinces 35,597  42,444 

Number  in  Peking   206  252 

Number  of  Students  in  Provincial  Schools.  1,013,571  1,284,965 

Number  in  Peking  11,417  15,774 

Points  to  Be  Noted.  Thus  it  appears  that  in  the 
short  space  of  two  years  there  was  an  increase  both 
in  the  number  of  schools  and  students.  The  in- 
crease in  the  number  of  students  included  3,951 
more  in  special  studies,  4,923  in  industrial  studies, 
and  265,644  more  in  ordinary  subjects.  When  the 
first  report  was  presented,  the  number  of  schools 
supported  by  the  government  officials  was  in  ex- 
cess of  those  supported  by  public  contributions  and 
private  individuals;  but  at  the  time  of  the  second 
report  this  state  of  affairs  had  been  entirely  re- 
versed. The  educational  activity  of  the  different 
provinces  varies.  The  Province  of  Chihli  led  with 
8,524  institutions;  Shantung  came  next  with  3,513; 
and  then  followed  in  order  Shensi,  Kiangsu,  Kwang- 
tung,  Hupeh,  and  Honan. 

Immense  Task  only  Begun.  On  the  whole  these 
reports  are  encouraging,  but  at  the  same  time 
they  show  that  China  has  only  begun  to  grapple 
with  her  educational  problem.  In  Japan  with  a 
population  estimated  at  sixty  million,  we  find  about 
six  million  young  people  of  school  age  under  in- 


New  Education  157 

struction.  If  the  same  proportion,  that  is,  one 
tenth  of  the  population,  was  provided  with  educa- 
tion in  China,  it  would  mean  that  forty  million 
young  people  must  be  afforded  school  facilities. 
Thus  far  not  as  many  as  two  million  are  to  be  found 
in  the  new  schools  and  colleges. 

Effect  of  Revolution  and  Republic.  During  the 
revolution  a  great  setback  was  given  to  the  cause 
of  education,  owing  to  the  lack  of  funds.  Money 
previously  devoted  to  this  purpose  was  diverted 
to  the  support  of  the  contending  forces.  Even 
after  peace  was  declared,  it  was  impossible  to  reor- 
ganize all  the  schools  immediately,  but  the  leaders 
of  the  republic  understand  that  national  education 
is  absolutely  essential  for  a  self-governing  people, 
and  we  may  confidently  expect  greater  activity  in 
education  than  ever  before. 

Enlarged  and  Progressive  Plans.  There  are  al- 
ready signs  of  progress.  The  Ministry  of  Edu- 
cation intends  to  establish  a  new  university,  at 
Nanking,  comprising  four  faculties,  in  the  autumn 
of  1913.  Later  another  university  will  be  founded 
in  Wuchang,  and  finally  one  at  Canton.  The  pres- 
ent Peking  University  will  be  completely  reorgan- 
ized, and  will  be  reopened  in  1914  with  seven  fac- 
ulties and  a  large  staff  of  foreign  professors.  Ad- 
vanced subjects  will  be  taught  through  the  medium 
of  Western  languages.  The  instruction  in  medicine 
will  be  given  in  German ;  technical  sciences  in  Eng- 
lish and  German ;  law,  commerce,  and  philosophy 
in  English;  agriculture  and  other  sciences  in  Eng- 


158  The  Emergency  in  China 

lish,  German,  or  French.  The  provincial  high 
schools  will  become  preparatory  schools  of  the 
universities.  EngHsh,  French,  and  German  will 
be  taught  in  them,  and  every  pupil  must  select  two 
of  these  three  languages  according  to  his  intended 
later  studies.  The  middle  schools,  which  have  as 
their  object  the  education  of  a  large  number  of 
youth  for  a  practical  life,  will  teach  not  more  than 
two  of  these  languages  and  each  pupil  must  select 
one.  In  1914,  six  higher  normal  schools  and  thirty 
normal  schools  will  be  opened.  There  will  be  in- 
struction in  English,  German,  and  French  in  the 
higher  normal  schools.  The  enforcement  of  pri- 
mary education  all  over  China  will  be  abandoned 
for  the  time  being,  owing  to  the  financial  difficulties 
of  the  country.  An  Inspector  of  Education  is  to 
be  appointed  for  each  province. 

Marked  Advance  in  the  South.  The  news  from 
Canton  is  encouraging.  The  Commissioner  of 
Education  in  that  province  is  a  progressive  Chris- 
tian man,  who  has  been  Dean  of  the  Canton  Chris- 
tian College.  He  is  busy  establishing  a  system 
of  schools  from  the  kindergarten  up  to  the  univer- 
sity. The  worship  of  Confucius  is  no  longer  to  be 
required  in  the  schools.  The  normal  school  has 
been  revived,  and  has  about  1,000  students.  Lec- 
turers are  sent  about  to  the  towns  and  villages  to 
explain  the  principles  of  the  new  government,  to 
urge  parents  to  send  their  children  to  school,  and 
to  stir  up  the  well-to-do  to  help  in  founding  more 
schools  as  private  contributors. 


New  Education  I59 

Use  of  Remitted  Indemnity.  As  is  well  known, 
the  Chinese  government  decided  to  use  the  por- 
tion of  the  Boxer  indemnity  fund  remitted  by  the 
United  States,  for  educating  picked  young  men  at 
American  schools  and  colleges.  Realizing  that  it 
would  be  some  time  before  higher  education  could 
be  conducted  efficiently  in  China  she  took  this  wise 
method  of  securing  thoroughly  well-trained  men 
for  service  in  the  government. 

Features  of  the  First  Years.  The  plan  was  to 
send  one  hundred  annually  for  four  years  and  after 
that  fifty  a  year  until  the  sum  was  exhausted.  Com- 
petitive examinations  were  held  in  Peking,  open 
to  students  of  all  the  schools  throughout  the  coun- 
try, and  those  who  were  successful  obtained  the 
enviable  privilege  of  study  in  the  United  States. 
Their  traveling  expenses  were  paid  and  to  each 
was  given  an  annual  allowance  of  $800.  Three 
batches  have  already  been  sent,  but  strange  to  say 
the  full  quota  of  one  hundred  has  never  been  sent 
at  any  one  time. 

New  Method  of  Preparation.  In  1910  a  new 
method  of  securing  students  was  adopted.  A  high 
school  was  founded  near  Peking  in  the  vicinity  of 
the  Summer  Palace.  Good  buildings  were  erected, 
and  a  large  number  of  American  teachers,  both 
men  and  women,  were  engaged  as  instructors. 
Hereafter  all  students  desirous  of  securing  an  edu- 
cation in  the  United  States  with  government  sup- 
port are  obliged  to  enter  this  school  to  receive  their 
preparation. 


i6o  The  Emergency  in  China 

New  Class  in  America.  North  Americans  for  a 
long  time  formed  their  impressions  of  the  Chinese 
people  from  the  immigrants  belonging  to  the  coolie 
class.  It  was  unfortunate  that  such  was  the  case. 
To  the  people  of  North  America  a  Chinaman  and 
laundryman  became  synonymous  terms.  An  amus- 
ing story  is  told  of  a  stranger  in  New  York  City 
rushing  up  to  an  Irish  policeman,  as  the  late  Li 
Hung-chang  was  passing  in  a  carriage  and  asking 
excitedly,  "Who  is  it?"  and  receiving  the  laconic 
reply,  ''Why,  it's  that  great  washerman  from 
China."  Now  people  in  the  United  States  are  be- 
coming familiar  with  the  young  men  and  women 
of  the  student  class.  Altogether  there  are  about 
eight  hundred  such  students  in  training,  and  taken 
as  a  whole  they  are  a  fine  body.  A  large  propor- 
tion are  students  in  the  universities,  and  they  often 
distinguish  themselves  for  scholarship,  carrying  off 
prizes,  even  those  given  for  English  oratory  and 
skill  in  debating. 

A  Great  Opportunity.  One  can  hardly  overesti- 
mate the  opportunity  of  the  United  States  for  in- 
fluencing the  future  of  China  through  the  educa- 
tion of  these  young  men  and  women.  The  question 
is  often  raised  as  to  whether  they  are  favorably  or 
unfavorably  impressed  by  the  national  and  social 
institutions  of  the  United  States  and  as  to  whether 
they  are  benefited  morally  as  well  as  intellectually 
by  their  sojourn  in  that  country.  On  the  whole 
the  experiment  is  working  well  and  the  balance  is 
on  the  side  of  much  good  accomplished.    It  is  the 


New  Education  i6i 

duty  of  the  Christians  of  North  America  to  see 
that  no  effort  is  spared  to  acquaint  these  students 
with  their  religious  ideals  and  the  highest  princi- 
ples upon  which  their  civilization  is  founded,  for 
all  that  is  done  in  this  way  will  undoubtedly  result 
in  great  benefit  to  the  cause  of  the  extension  of  the 
Christian  Church  in   China. 

Some  Criticisms  of  the  Present  Educational  Sys- 
tem. To  return  to  the  system  of  education  estab- 
lished by  the  government,  it  is  easy  to  point  out 
much  of  an  unsatisfactory  nature  in  connection 
with  it,  as  at  present  carried  on;  and  pages  might 
be  written  by  way  of  criticism. 

Lack  of  Discipline.  Intoxicated  by  the  new  ideas 
in  regard  to  liberty  and  self-government,  the  stu- 
dent class  has  been  noted  for  turbulence  and  un- 
ruliness.  Sometimes  they  have  attempted  to  or- 
ganize schools  on  a  republican  basis,  and  to  place 
the  authority  in  the  hands  of  the  students  instead 
of  leaving  it  with  the  faculty.  Thus  we  find  them 
dictating  what  and  how  they  shall  be  taught,  and 
what  the  discipline  of  the  school  shall  be.  When- 
ever they  fancied  they  had  a  grievance,  a  mass- 
meeting  would  be  held  at  which  hot-headed  orators 
would  hold  forth.  Then  a  strike  would  be  declared, 
and  the  students  would  threaten  to  leave  the  insti- 
tution or  refuse  to  attend  classes  until  the  author- 
ities yielded  to  their  wishes.  The  Director  of  the 
school,  generally  some  Chinese  official,  ignorant  of 
educational  matters,  and  only  holding  his  position 
until  something  better  turned  up,  would  be  seized 


1 62  The  Emergency  in  China 

with  consternation.  The  one  thing  he  feared  was 
trouble  in  the  school,  because  that  meant  his  dis- 
missal from  office  by  the  authorities  in  Peking  and 
the  ruin  of  his  official  career.  Hence  he  generally 
gave  in.  We  heard  of  one  school  where  republican 
principles  were  carried  so  far  that  the  teachers  re- 
ceived demerits  from  the  students  if  in  their  eyes 
they  showed  any  remissness  in  their  duties,  and  the 
demerits  were  posted  on  a  public  bulletin-board ! 
The  discipline  of  the  mission  schools  has  been  in 
striking  contrast  to  the  utter  lack  of  discipline  in 
many  government  institutions. 

Time  Will  Remove  Imperfections.  The  Chinese 
are  eminently  a  practical  people,  and  in  due  course 
their  strong  common  sense  will  assert  itself,  and 
they  will  see  the  utter  folly  of  trying  to  conduct 
a  successful  school  on  the  wild  principles  advocated 
by  the  students.  As  time  goes  on  we  shall  hope 
to  see  many  of  the  former  imperfections  pass  away. 
There  will  be  a  more  enlightened  Board  of  Edu- 
cation, and  greater  care  will  be  taken  to  place  men 
of  experience  in  education  at  the  head  of  the  schools 
and  colleges.  Competent  teachers  will  be  secured, 
and  every  effort  will  be  made  to  construct  as  effi- 
cient an  educational  system  in  China  as  already 
exists  in  Japan. 

Action  of  Educational  Associations.  Even  before 
the  revolution,  educational  associations  had  been 
formed  in  all  the  provinces,  and  many  of  the  prob- 
lems connected  with  the  new  system  were  receiv- 
ing thoughtful  attention.    At  a  representative  gath- 


New  Education  163 

ering  of  educators  held  in  Peking-  in  1912  many 
recommendations  were  drawn  up  to  be  presented  to 
the  National  Assembly.  Among  them  were  the  fol- 
lowing: I.  The  desirability  of  making  education 
compulsory  for  all  children  between  certain  ages; 
2.  The  doing  away  with  the  granting  of  degrees  in 
the  lower  schools,  so  that  education  might  have  a 
broader  aim  than  merely  preparing  young  men  for 
employment  in  the  service  of  the  government;  3. 
The  necessity  of  placing  the  emphasis  on  the  pri- 
mary school ;  4.  The  discontinuance  of  teaching  the 
Chinese  classics  in  schools  of  lower  grade.  Inas- 
much as  the  revolution  for  the  time  being  absorbed 
all  interest,  these  recommendations  were  never 
acted  upon.  The  difficulty  in  regard  to  making  edu- 
cation compulsory  is  the  financial  one.  It  is  such  a 
costly  experiment  that  it  may  be  some  time  before 
the  new  government  will  be  able  to  adopt  it  as  a 
part  of  its  program. 

Education  and  Employment  in  Government 
Service.  Undoubtedly  one  of  the  evils  China  must 
steer  clear  of  is  making  education  merely  a  means 
of  training  those  who  are  to  be  officials.  This  was 
one  of  the  mistakes  made  in  India,  where  a  large 
number  of  young  men  are  educated  to  pass  the  civil 
service  examinations,  with  the  result  that  the  sup- 
ply is  in  excess  of  the  demand.  The  political  agita- 
tors in  India  are  largely  found  among  this  class 
who  have  been  rendered  unfit  by  their  education  for 
anything  except  employment  in  the  government. 
The  Chinese  have  only  begun  to  grasp  the  truth 


164  The  Emergency  in  China 

that  education  must  be  a  means  for  training  men 
for  professional  life,  private  enterprise,  and  indus- 
try, as  well  as  for  the  government  service. 

Need  of  Primary  Schools.  At  the  outset  China 
made  the  mistake  of  trying  to  build  from  the  top 
downward,  and  accordingly  the  emphasis  was  laid 
on  advanced  schools.  Now  they  understand  that 
an  adequate  system  of  education  can  only  be  con- 
structed by  beginning  from  the  bottom,  and  estab- 
lishing efficient  primary  schools  throughout  the 
country. 

Neglect  of  Chinese  Classics.  The  relegating  of 
the  Chinese  classics  to  a  subordinate  place  in  the 
school  curriculum  is  wise,  for  these  books  are  en- 
tirely unsuitable  for  young  pupils.  For  boys  of 
ten  years  of  age  to  study  the  moral  teachings  of 
Confucius  and  Mencius  is  something  like  using 
Aristotle's  Ethics  as  a  text-book  for  those  of  the 
same  age  in  the  West.  The  utter  disregard  for  the 
teachings  of  their  own  sages,  often  manifested,  is 
however  fraught  with  many  dangers.  What  is  of 
value  in  Chinese  civilization  is  due  very  largely  to 
the  influence  of  the  teaching  of  Confucius  and  Men- 
cius. The  Chinese  have  alv/ays  prided  themselves 
on  the  fact  that  their  system  led  to  ethical  cul- 
ture. If  the  ancient  moral  teaching  is  abandoned, 
and  nothing  put  in  its  place,  a  serious  decline  in 
morality  will  undoubtedly  take  place.  Many  of 
the  old  Chinese  officials,  men  of  the  stamp  of  the 
•late  Chang  Chih-tung,  feared  this,  and  it  was  one 
of  the  reasons  leading  them  to  retain  the  Chinese 


New  Education  165 

classics  in  the  new  system  of  education.  The  young 
men  of  to-day  are  too  apt  to  regard  Confucius  as 
an  old  fogy.  They  perceive  that  he  was  ignorant 
of  natural  science  and  that  his  mental  horizon  was 
limited,  and  they  look  down  upon  him  with  a  proud 
feeling  of  superiority.  Furthermore,  because  he 
taught  the  great  principle  of  obedience  to  authority, 
they  regard  him  as  being  sadly  out  of  date. 

Chinese  Ideographs.  We  must  refer  again  to  one 
more  problem  in  connection  with  the  introduction 
of  an  enlightened  system  of  education,  and  that  is 
the  study  of  Chinese  ideographs.  It  goes  without 
saying  that  a  language  with  a  simple  alphabet  in- 
sures a  great  saving  of  time  in  the  process  of  learn- 
ing. The  American  child  of  twelve  can  read  under- 
standingly,  but  the  Chinese  boy  takes  at  least  four 
more  years  to  equip  himself  with  a  sufficient  knowl- 
edge of  characters  to  be  'able  to  comprehend  the 
books  he  studies.  This  acquiring  of  thousands  of 
characters,  each  standing  for  a  separate  idea  or 
word,  is  a  time-consuming  process,  and  a  heavy 
mental  tax.  The  pride  of  the  Chinese  for  the  won- 
derful written  language  which  they  have  slowly 
evolved,  and  which  has  been  in  use  for  so  many 
centuries  is  tremendous.  It  is  difficult  to  say  how 
long  it  will  be  before  they  adopt  something  simpler, 
but  until  they  do,  they  will  be  greatly  handicapped 
in  the  pursuit  of  knowledge,  and  learning  will  con- 
tinue to  be  confined  to  the  chosen  few. 

Mission  Schools.  It  will  not  be  out  of  place  to 
say  a  few  words  here  in  regard  to  mission  schools. 


l66  The  Emergency  in  China 

Until  recently  they  had  the  field  of  higher  educa- 
tion entirely  to  themselves.  In  the  primary  schools 
missionaries  were  the  first  to  introduce  geography, 
arithmetic,  and  simple  science,  and  in  the  more  ad- 
vanced schools,  in  addition  to  teaching  the  Chinese 
classics,  they  gave  instruction  in  the  subjects  taught 
in  American  high  schools.  All  the  first  text-books 
translated  into  Chinese  on  history,  geography,  and 
science  were  prepared  by  them,  and  much  effort 
was  expended  in  developing  colleges  in  which  either 
in  Chinese  or  through  the  medium  of  English 
young  men  were  trained  on  lines  similar  to  those 
followed  in  American  colleges.  It  is  in  keeping 
with  the  American  valuation  of  education  that  most 
of  the  institutions  of  higher  learning  have  been  or- 
ganized and  carried  on  by  missionaries  from  North 
America.  Many  of  these  schools  and  colleges  have 
been  models  of  what  such  institutions  ought  to  be, 
and  were  far  in  advance  of  anything  the  Chinese 
themselves  were  able  to  provide. 

Need  of  Mission  Schools  in  the  Future.  The 
question  arises  as  to  the  status  of  mission  schools 
in  the  future,  when  China  really  extends  a  system 
of  enlightening  education  throughout  the  country. 
We  believe  the  present  need  of  mission  schools  is 
greater  than  ever,  and  we  have  strong  reasons  for 
this  conviction. 

Production  of  Character.  For  one  thing,  it  is 
absolutely  essential  to  show  the  Chinese  that  the 
great  object  of  education  is  the  production  of  char- 
acter.    This   is  what  the  Christian   school   stands 


New  Education  167 

for.  It  aims  to  give  a  knowledge  of  all  truth,  spir- 
itual, moral,  and  intellectual,  and  to  show  how  these 
elements  harmonizke  with  one  another ;  and  it  strives 
to  bring  the  force  of  truth  to  bear  upon  the  de- 
velopment of  character.  China's  greatest  need  is 
men  of  high  principle,  and  we  believe  that  the 
Christian  school  is  needed  for  their  production. 

Example  of  Discipline.  Then  again  in  regard  to 
the  matter  of  discipline,  the  Christian  school  will  be 
a  stimulating  example.  Those  in  authority  are  not 
hampered  by  the  great  evils  of  China, — nepotism, 
favoritism,  the  squeeze  system,  and  the  dread  of 
giving  offense, — but  are  in  a  position  to  conduct 
their  work  according  to  the  principles  of  justice  and 
integrity. 

Leavening  of  Common  Life.  When  we  bear  in 
mind  that  the  aim  of  the  Christian  Church  is  not 
merely  to  fit  men  for  a  future  existence,  but  to 
prepare  them  for  usefulness  in  this  present  life,  we 
see  that  we  must  endeavor  to  send  out  men  to  act 
as  a  Christian  leaven  into  all  professions  and  walks 
of  life.  If  Chinese  political  and  social  life  is  to  be 
permeated  with  Christian  ideals  and  practises,  there 
must  be  more  Christian  statesmen,  magistrates, 
judges,  lawyers,  doctors,  engineers,  teachers,  and 
merchants,  and  the  school  and  college  with  the 
Christian  atmosphere  is  their  proper  training- 
ground. 

Religious  Toleration.  The  opportunities  of  the 
Christian  school  will  be  greatly  increased.  Al- 
though  nominally   Christianity  has  been   tolerated 


l68  The  Emergency  in  China 

in  China,  yet  in  reality  the  Christian  has  labored 
under  many  disabilities.  For  instance,  in  the 
former  Manchu  government,  when  the  franchise 
was  given  to  certain  classes  for  the  election  of  rep- 
resentatives to  the  Provincial  Assemblies,  the  grad- 
uates of  government  institutions  were  accorded  this 
right,  but  not  those  of  mission  colleges.  Further- 
more, no  official  recognition  was  given  to  the  gradu- 
ates of  mission  schools.  If  a  mission  school  con- 
templated obtaining  government  recognition  and 
being  registered  by  the  Board  of  Education,  it  was 
not  only  obliged  to  come  under  Chinese  control, 
but  was  required  to  drop  from  its  curriculum  all 
teaching  in  regard  to  the  Christian  religion.  Com- 
plete religious  toleration  is  one  of  the  great  bene- 
fits secured  by  the  revolution,  and  hereafter  it  is 
hoped  that  the  students  in  government  and  Chris- 
tian institutions  v/ill  be  on  exactly  the  same  foot- 
ing. 

Service  Rather  than  Competition.  The  Christian 
schools  will  serve  as  an  important  auxiliary  force 
in  the  enlightenment  of  the  nation.  It  must  be 
made  perfectly  clear  that  they  are  not  actuated  by 
a  spirit  of  rivalry,  and  do  not  desire  to  enter  into 
competition  with  government  institutions.  Disin- 
terested service,  not  competition,  must  be  our  justi- 
fication for  taking  part  in  this  work  of  education. 

A  Decisive  Decade.  The  next  ten  years  are  most 
critical  ones,  for  during  that  time  it  will  be  decided 
whether  Christian  schools  and  colleges  shall  con- 
tinue  to  play  an   important  part  in  the  uplift  of 


New  Education  169 

China,  or  whether  they  become  a  negligible  factor. 
If  we  increase  our  efficiency  and  continue  to  fur- 
nish models  of  what  well-conducted  educational  in- 
stitutions should  be,  success  is  assured.  If  we  fail, 
we  shall  take  away  from  China  one  of  the  forces 
she  can  least  well  spare.  As  we  point  out  in. an- 
other chapter,^  the  new  education  divorced  from 
religion  is  only  too  apt  to  lead  to  materialism. 
The  Christian  school  is  the  greatest  influence  in 
China  to-day  for  stemming  the  tide  of  agnostic 
rationalism. 

Problem  of  United  Policy.  Those  engaged  in 
education  in  China  realize  the  importance  of 
strengthening  their  work,  and  are  urgently  appeal- 
ing for  help  from  Christian  lands.  Some  see  the 
futility  of  carrying  on  a  large  number  of  weak  col- 
leges, and  are  adopting  the  policy  of  cooperation, 
two  or  three  missions  uniting  in  the  support  of  one 
institution.  Cooperation  along  these  lines  has  been 
successfully  instituted  in  Chihli,  Shantung,  Sze- 
chwan,  and  Nanking.  There  is  a  project  on  foot 
now  for  a  union  university  in  Foochow.  The  prin- 
cipal difficulty  with  such  schemes  is,  of  course,  the 
matter  of  administration.  If  questions  of  policy 
have  to  be  referred  back  to  several  different  mis- 
sions, before  they  can  be  adopted,  there  is  great 
loss  of  time,  and  the  authorities  of  the  institution 
are  greatly  hampered.  We  believe  that  a  better 
policy  and  one  making  more  for  unity  would  be  the 
strengthening  of  individual  institutions  at  impor- 
^See  page  192. 


170  The  Emergency  in  China 

tant  centers,  and  leaving  them  under  the  control 
of  one  Church.  Hostels  could  be  erected  in  con- 
nection with  them,  if  any  Church  wished  to  provide 
for  the  segregation  of  their  own  students.  The  in- 
stitution at  each  center  would  be  providing  for  the 
whole  Christian  community  of  that  area,  and  would 
have  a  right  to  appeal  for  support  to  all  Christian 
bodies.  Its  policy  of  administration  would  be  much 
simplified,  if  under  the  control  of  one  board  of 
missions. 

A  High  Standard,  It  is  necessary  however  that 
we  give  of  our  best — anything  less  is  unworthy  of 
the  Christian  Church.  We  must  furnish  our  schools 
with  the  best  equipment,  and  must  be  ready  to 
put  more  men  and  money  into  the  work.  Thus,  as 
the  years  go  by,  the  Christian  schools  and  colleges 
will  prove  of  greater  benefit  to  this  people,  and 
will  exert  a  stronger  influence  for  the  extension 
of  the  kingdom  of  God  in  China.  The  altruistic 
spirit  of  the  Christian  Church  must  display  itself 
in  the  work  of  education.  The  physical  suffering 
in  China  appeals  to  us  and  we  send  our  doctors 
and  nurses  and  build  our  hospitals  and  dispensaries, 
and  in  like  manner  the  mental  darkness  of  China 
appeals  to  us.  We  know  that  it  is  the  cause  of 
superstition,  poverty,  and  national  weakness,  and 
we  feel  bound  to  help  in  dispelling  it.  If  we  refuse, 
we  are  not  acting  in  the  spirit  of  the  Master,  who 
laid  down  the  program  of  Christianity  in  the  syna- 
gogue at  Nazareth.  As  the  opportunities  of  service 
become  greater,  we  must  grasp  them,  and  send  out 


New  Education  i?^ 

the   light   and  truth   into   the   dark  places   of   the 

world. 

Native  Press.  One  of  the  greatest  educational 
forces  in  China  is  the  native  press  and  the  circula- 
tion of  newspapers.  Formerly  news  was  communi- 
cated by  word  of  mouth  and  by  placards  posted  on 
the  walls.  The  tea  shop  has  been  to  China  what 
the  coffee-house  was  in  England  in  the  days  of 
Dr.  Johnson ;  and,  gathered  about  the  tables,  drink- 
ing the  steaming  hot  beverage  of  which  they  are 
so  fond,  the  Chinese  interchanged  the  news  of  the 
day,  and  heard  the  rumors  which  were  floating 
about. 

Pioneer  Conditions.  The  Peking  Gazette  is  prob- 
ably the  oldest  newspaper  in  the  world,  but  it  had 
no  circulation  outside  of  the  capital  and  was  con- 
fined to  the  publication  of  government  edicts. 
Shanghai  was  for  China  the  mother  of  newspapers 
in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word,  for  there  it  was 
possible  under  foreign  ownership,  real  or  nominal, 
to  print  the  news  of  the  day,  and  to  publish  articles 
criticizing  the  government  and  its  policy.  Formerly 
there  was  no  freedom  of  the  press  in  China,  and 
the  only  way  to  secure  free  expression  of  opinion 
was  by  registering  the  newspapers  in  the  name  of 
Europeans.  At  present  at  least  two  hundred  Chi- 
nese newspapers  are  published,  and  their  circula- 
tion is  rapidly  increasing.  Through  the  mails  they 
are  scattered  far  and  wide  throughout  the  country 
and  exert  an  enormous  influence  in  the  creation  of 
public  opinion. 


172  The  Emergency  in  China 

Magazines  a  Factor.  In  addition  to  newspapers 
there  has  been  great  activity  in  the  publication  of 
magazines.  Before  the  revolution  many  of  these 
were  edited  and  published  in  Japan  and  thus 
avoided  Chinese  censorship.  The  officials,  realizing 
the  influence  of  such  publications,  have  at  times  at- 
tempted to  buy  up  or  subsidize  some  of  them  so  as 
to  make  them  media  for  the  expression  of  opinions 
in  favor  of  a  government  program. 

Two  Aids  in  China's  Transformation.  During 
the  recent  revolution,  the  Chinese  press,  having  its 
headquarters  in  Shanghai,  was  unanimous  in  voic- 
ing the  sentiments  of  the  people  and  bitterly  de- 
nounced the  shortcomings  of  the  Manchu  govern- 
ment. It  served  as  a  most  useful  organ  in  the 
spread  of  democratic  opinions.  Thus  through 
schools  and  native  press  goes  on  this  great  work 
of  the  leavening  of  Chinese  thought  with  new  ideas 
and  conceptions.  It  is  undoubtedly  one  of  the 
greatest  intellectual  revolutions  the  world  has  ever 
witnessed. 

Results  Beyond  Estimate.  It  is  too  soon  yet  to 
foresee  all  its  consequences,  but  of  one  thing  we 
may  feel  positive,  China  educated,  as  we  understand 
education,  will  bring  a  new  force  into  the  future 
civilization  of  the  world. 

IMPORTANT  QUOTATIONS 

An  Optimistic  Viceroy 
We  need  not  feel  discouraged  if  there  is  a  dearth  of  effi- 
cient teachers  for  these  institutions  at  the  outset.  This  difficulty 
will  soon  be  obviated.    This  year  there  are  numberless  books 


New  Education  173 

which  treat  of  foreign  subjects  published  in  Shanghai.  _  Any 
man  of  understanding  can,  by  the  use  of  these,  equip  himself 
in  three  months  to  teach  in  the  high  schools.  In  a  couple  of 
years  the  colleges  will  graduate  men  who  are  also  qualified  to 
teach.  The  faculties  of  the  universities  will  perhaps  be  in- 
complete at  first,  but  a  few  good  men  in  each  province  can  be 
found  who  will  serve  for  three  years,  when  there  will  be  an 
abundance  of  useful  literature  and  consequently  better 
equipped  instructors.  There  need  be  no  fear  on  this  score. 
— Chang  Chih-tung,  China's  Only  Hope  (written  in  1898). 

But  in  consideration  of  the  evidence  from  the  mission  field, 
we  have  constantly  been  brought  face  to  face  with  the  neces- 
sity for  careful  consideration  of  the  question  whether  a  revi- 
sion of  our  missionary  methods  is  not  called  for,  especially  in 
education.  The  necessity  for  this  reconsideration  lies  partly  in 
the  change  which  has  come  over  educational  ideals  in  Europe 
and  America ;  partly  in  the  uprising  of  the  national  spirit,  both 
in  the  East  and  in  Africa,  which  makes  anything  which  bears 
a  foreign  aspect  repulsive;  partly  in  the  greater  activity  of 
governments  in  providing  education,  which  renders  inadequate 
much  that  used  to  be  sufficient  and  attractive  in  missionary 
schools.    .     .     . 

As  we  have  already  seen,  the  functions  which  education  may 
fill  in  the  work  of  Christian  missions  may  be  summarized 
under  the  following  heads  : 

1.  Education  may  be  conducted  primarily  with  an  evangel- 
istic purpose,  being  viewed  either  as  an  attractive  force  to 
bring  the  youth  under  the  influence  of  Christianity  or  as  itself 
an  evangelizing  agency. 

2.  Education  may  be  primarily  edificatory,  in  so  far  as  the 
school  has  for  its  object  the  development  of  the  Christian 
community  through  the  enlightenment  and  training  of  its 
members. 

^  3.  Education  may  be  leavening,  in  so  far  as  through  it  the 
life  of  the  nation  is  gradually  perm.eated  with  the  principles 
of  truth.  The  results  of  such  education  are  seen  in  the  cre- 
ation of  an  atmosphere  in  which  it  is  possible  for  the  Church 
to  live  and  grow,  in  the  production  among  the  influential 
classes  of  a  feeling  more  friendly  to  Christianity  and  a  greater 
readiness  to_  consider  its  claims,  in  the  exhibition  of  the  rela- 
tion of  Christianity  to  learning,  progress,  and  the  higher  life 
of  man,  in  the  promotion  of  religious  toleration,  and  in  the 
establishment  of  a  new  spiritual  basis  for  the  life  of  society 
in  the  place  of  old  foundations  which  may  be  passing  away. 
In  all  these  ways,  and  probably  others.   Christian  education 


174  The  Emergency  in  China 

tends  both  to  the  elevation  of  the  Ufe  of  the  nation  and  to 
preparation  for  its  ultimate  acceptance  of  Christianity. 

4.  The  motive  of  missionary  education  may  include  the 
philanthropic  desire  to  promote  the  general  welfare  of  the 
people.  There  may  be  occasions  in  which  the  members  of  a 
Christian  nation,  confronting  the  situation  in  another  nation, 
shall  be  compelled  in  obedience  to  the  spirit  of  Jesus  to  rec- 
ognize that  the  needs  of  this  people  are  so  various,  so  seri- 
ous, and  so  pressing,  that  as  Christians  they  cannot  limit  their 
efforts  to  evangelistic,  edificatory,  or  leavening  ministries,  but 
must,  to  the  measure  of  their  ability,  extend  to  them  the  hand 
of  help  in  every  phase  of  their  life.  It  may  even  be  necessary 
for  a  time  to  put  the  stress  of  effort  upon  things  that  have  to 
do  with  economic  or  educational  conditions  in  the  broader 
sense  of  the  term ;  always,  of  course,  keeping  in  mind  the  ulti- 
mate aim  of  Christian  missions,  the  full  Christianization  of 
the  life  of  the  nation.  To  do  so  is  to  apply  to  the  members 
of  a  non-Christian  nation  the  principle  which  we  in  obedience 
to  the  spirit  of  Christ  constantly  apply  to  the  members  of  our 
own  nation,  whether  Christian  or  non-Christian,  Christian 
missionaries  have  always  recogiiized  this  in  practise,  even  when 
mis^onary  societies  have  not  done  so  in  theory. 

— Report  of  Commission  III  of  the  Edinburgh  World  Mis- 
sionary Conference. 


1.  The  missionaries  are  ceasing  to  be  the  only  Western- 
educated  leaders  in  these  countries,  and  their  schools  have 
relatively  less  influence. 

2.  This  new  education  tends  to  break  down  old  religious 
beliefs  and  ethical  sanctions.  These  schools  and  universities 
are  sending  out  into  life  men  who  openly  scoff  at  all  religion 
or  who  are  at  least  agnostic.  They  have  lost  their  old  ethical 
moorings  and  have  found  nothing  to  take  their  place. 

3.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  rising  a  company  of  men 
who  are  imbued  with  the  political  and  social  ideals  of  the 
West,  who  realize  keenly  both  the  weakness  and  the  strength 
of  their  old  civilization,  and  who  are  anxious  to  see  their 
countries  strengthened  until  they  can  look  any  nation  in  the 
face  as  an  equal. 

These  effects  are  both  a  challenge  and  an  encouragement  to 
the  missionary.  They  mean  an  ethical  retrogression,  unless 
these  graduates  can  be  Christianized,  and,  at  the  same  time,  a 
great  potential  reenforcement  for  the  work  of  Christianizing 
society. 

— Dr.  E.  W.  Capen,  The  East  and  the  West,  April,  1912. 


New  Education  175 

As  nearly  as  we  can  safely  forecast,  missionary  educational 
institutions  under  the  new  regime  will  be  private  schools  con- 
forming to  government  requirements  and  submitting  to  more 
or  less  government  inspection.  This  would  seem  to  be  the 
only  solution  consistent  with  the  motive  of  missionary  work 
in  general.  While  admitting  the  fact  that  such  recognition 
brings  with  it  problems  as  well  as  advantages,  as  a  study  of 
the  educational  situation  in  India  will  show,  yet  mission 
schools  will  thus  become  a  much  more  potent  factor  in  China. 
In  the  face  of  this  change  which  is  now  hardly  more  than  a 
question  of  time,  it  behooves  the  missionary  educationists  to 
formulate  a  policy  which  will  enable  our  schools  to  cope  with 
the  situation.  With  respect  to  the  future  public  schools  of 
China,  missionary  educational  institutions  must  be  models,  and 
certainly  in  every  respect  as  good.  That  is  where  the  effi- 
ciency of  our  educational  system  must  take  us.  With  refer- 
ence to  the  growing  Christian  constituency  in  China,  mission 
schools  must  stand  for  training  for  Christian  living ;  for  when 
this  ceases  to  be  true  of  us  we  are  no  longer  doing  that  for 
which  we  came.  How  can  we  obtain  this  effectiveness  as 
missionary  institutions  and  efficiency  as  educational  institu- 
tions ?  By  concentration.  For  the  place  of  the  mission  schools 
in  the  development  of  China  depends  not  on  number  but  on 
quality.  For  this  result,  concentration  of  efforts  and  funds  is 
essential.  This  resolves  itself  into  the  question  of  effective 
cooperation  among  the  various  denominations  now  doing  edu- 
cational work  in  China.  Our  schools  must  not  become  secu- 
lar, but  they  need  not  remain  denominational  to  prevent  this. 
The  weakness  that  results  from  individual  effort  where  united 
effort  is  possible  is  becoming  a  distinct  obstruction  to  placing 
mission  schools  where  they  can  cope  with  the  situation.  Our 
mission  educational  policy  resolves  itself  to  this,  the  necessity 
of  sinking  our  individual  aspirations  in  the  larger  purpose  of 
making  our  educational  system  adequate  to  the  task  of  helping 
our  Christian  constituency  take  its  rightful  place  in  the  nation. 
— Editorial  in  the  Chinese  Recorder,  April,  1912. 


One  result,  therefore,  of  government  recognition  (which  is 
bound  to  mean  some  kind  of  control)  will  be  that  our  mis- 
sionary schools  as  schools  are  bound  to  be  made  more  effi- 
cient and  more  up  to  date.    Otherwise  they  will  cease  to  exist. 

If  we  can  produce  an  education  which  will  be  intrinsically  as 
good  or  better  than  that  of  the  government,  and  are  able  at 
the  same  time  to  ground  pupils  and  students  in  the  funda- 
mentals of  Christianity,  and  to  mold  character  thereby,  then  we 


1^6  The  Emergency  in  China 

need  not  fear  any  government  control.     We  will  welcome  it 
and  the  government  will  welcome  us. 

Dr.  Paul  D.  Bergen,  Chinese  Recorder,  April,  1912. 

The  mission  bodies  on  the  various  fields  are,  as  a  rule,  thor- 
oughly awake  to  the  educational  opportunities  of  the  present 
time.  Strenuous  efforts  are  being  made,  on  every  field,  to 
work  out  an  adequate  educational  policy  and  to  get  these 
policies  adopted  by  those  who  are  responsible  in  the  home 
countries.  Extensive  plans  are  being  urged  upon  all  our 
leading  denominational  boards.  Systems  of  schools  which 
have  been  gradually  developing  for  several  decades  are  now 
urgently  demanding,  for  their  completion,  colleges  and  univer- 
sities with  their  graduate  and  professional  schools.  _  Advanced 
institutions  on  a  really  large  scale — comparable  with  similar 
institutions  at  home — are  included  in  the  plans  for  the  imme- 
diate future.  The  genuineness  and  the  possibilities  of  far- 
reaching  results  of  the  present  awakening  of  all  Asiatic  peo- 
ples are  too  vital  factors  in  the  consciousness  of  missionary 
leaders  to  permit  them  to  be  overlooked  for  one  moment  in 
making  plans  for  the  future.  The  determining  factor  in  plan- 
ning advanced  educational  institutions,  under  such  conditions, 
is  not  the  amount  of  money  which  can  be  depended  upon  from 
the  ordinary  resources  of  home  boards,  but  it  is  the  absolute 
demands  and  requirements  of  the  localities  and  the  conditions 
for  which  the  institutions  are  intended.  It  is  doubtful  if  insti- 
tutions planned  on  any  other  basis  would  be  worth  supporting. 
If  there  is  not  a  real  purpose  to  stem  the  rising  tide  in  Asia 
to-day,  to  direct  and  control  the  inevitable  reformation  for 
which  we  have  been  working  so  long,  and  to  permeate  it  with 
Christian  thought,  then  why  establish  advanced  educational 
institutions  at  all? 

— Dr.  J.  T.  Procter,  Chinese  Recorder,  July,  1912. 

Times  have  changed,  and  what  the  country  needs  to-day  is 
efficient  citizens.  For  this  reason,  the  revised  course  of  study 
for  the  primary  schools  lays  the  stress  on  industrial  and  com- 
mercial education.  This  is  in  keeping  with  recent  develop- 
ments in  education  in  America,  Japan,  the  Philippine  Islands, 
and  the  more  advanced  countries  of  Europe,  especially  Ger- 
many and  England. 

This  step  does  not  involve  the  discarding  of  the  classics  al- 
together from  the  course  of  study.  Classical  selections  are 
to  be  incorporated  in  readers  and  books  on  ethics,  as  selections 
from  the  English  classics  are  made  use  of  in  the  foreign  read- 
ers.    The  course  of  study  for  the  middle  and  higher  schools 


New  Education  177 

has  not  been  issued,  so  we  do  not  know  definitely  what  the 
government  intends  to  do  in  the  higher  schools,  but  it  is  prob- 
able that  the  Chinese  classics  will  find  a  place  in  the  course  of 
study  when  the  minds  of  the  students  are  mature  enough  to 
understand  them,  just  as  English  literature  is  systematically 
taught  in  the  high  school  and  college  in  America  and  England. 
— FoNG  F.  Sec,  Chinese  Recorder,  December,  1912. 

Kwangtung  Province  is  being  amply  justified  in  the  choice 
of  Mr.  Chung  as  its  first  officer  and  leader  in  education. 

He  has  made  a  census  of  the  children  of  school  age  in  Can- 
ton—an unheard-of  thing,— has  opened  many  new  schools  for 
their  accommodation,  and  forced  their  attendance  as  far  as 
possible,  thereby  taking  many  off  the  streets,  and  removing 
some  from  positions  of  most  taxing  labor. 

The  provincial  government  granted  Mr.  Chung  and  his  de- 
partment $200,000  for  the  purpose  of  sending  students  abroad 
to  study.  Competitive  examinations  were  given  in  July,  and 
the  students  have  now  gone,  under  pledge  to  return,  as  teach- 
ers in  this  province.  Many  of  these  went  to  America,  in- 
cluding ten  from  Canton  Christian  College. 

Opposition  of  a  very  threatening  nature  arose  when  the  new 
Christian  Commissioner  attempted  to  abolish  the  worship  of 
Confucius  in  the  government  schools  of  the  province,  but  he 
held  firm,  at  the  risk  of  his  position,  and  prevailed.  Under  his 
influence  rapid  advance  is  also  being  made  toward  complete 
religious  freedom  in  the  private  schools  which  enjoy  recogni- 
tion by  the  government.  This  is  interesting  when  compared 
with  the  religious  requirements  in  the  schools  of  Japan. 

—Canton  Christian  College  Notes,  Chinese  Recorder,  De- 
cember, 1912. 


RELIGIOUS    CONDITIONS 


CHAPTER   VI 

RELIGIOUS  CONDITIONS 

Most  unhappy  must  be  a  people  always  living  in  a 
thousand — a  hundred  thousand — fears  of  invisible  be- 
ings which  surround  the  path  of  life  zvith  dangers  on 
every  hand,  at  every  moment. 

—J.  J.  M.  DeGroot 

Christ  is,  we  believe,  the  Sun  of  Righteousness,  but 
in  order  to  prepare  for  his  complete  manifestation  we 
have  not  got  to  extinguish  the  stars  which  have  helped 
to  illumine  the  darkness  of  the  non-Christian  world 
and  to  guide  seekers  after  truth  in  iheir  search  for 
God. 

— Canon  C.  H.  Robinson 

The  Three  Religions.  Religion  in  China  at  first 
sight  seems  like  a  composite  photograph ;  for  the 
three  religions,  Confucianism,  Taoism,  and  Budd- 
hism are  superimposed,  the  one  upon  the  other. 
As  has  often  been  remarked,  a  man  may  at  one  and 
the  same  time  be  a  beHever  in  all  three.  Although 
the  old-fashioned  scholar  prides  himself  upon  being 
solely  a  follower  of  Confucius,  and  pretends  to  de- 
spise the  other  cults,  yet  at  funerals  and  important 
family    functions,    he    frequently    condescends    to 

i8i 


i82  The  Emergency  in  China 

employ  Buddhist  or  Taoist  priests.  How  can  we 
understand  this  broad  eclecticism — this  ability  to 
hold  impartially  tenets  of  religions  which  appear  to 
be  contradictory?  If  we  keep  certain  leading  ideas 
in  mind,  perhaps  what  at  first  looks  like  a  hopeless 
jumble  may  become  more  intelligible  and  will  cease 
to  appear  so  illogical. 

Primitive  Religion  of  China.  The  primitive  re- 
ligion of  the  Chinese  is  undoubtedly  animism.  The 
universe  is  pervaded  by  two  spiritual  forces — the 
Yang  and  the  Yin,  the  former  being  the  origin  of 
heaven,  light,  warmth,  productivity,  life,  and  other 
helpful  forces,  and  the  latter  of  darkness,  cold, 
death,  and  the  earth.  The  Yang  is  subdivided  into 
an  indefinite  number  of  good  souls  or  spirits  called 
Shen,  and  the  Yin  into  evil  spirits  called  Kwei. 
These  Shen  and  Kwei  animate  every  being  and 
everything.  The  immaterial,  ethereal,  moral,  and  in- 
tellectual part  of  man's  nature  is  his  Shen,  while  his 
passions,  vices,  and  lower  appetites  are  his  Kwei. 
The  old  religion  of  China  is  therefore  both  poly- 
theistic and  polydemonistic. 

The  Antagonistic  Spirits.  The  two  sorts  of 
spirits,  the  Shen  and  the  Kwei,  are  antagonistic  to 
one  another — the  Shen  being  favorably  disposed 
and  the  Kwei  seeking  to  do  mischief.  All  the  ca- 
lamities, misfortunes,  sicknesses,  and  other  evils  to 
which  flesh  is  heir  are  the  work  of  the  Kwei. 
Heaven  or  Shang-ti,  the  Supreme  Ruler,  is  the 
highest  Shen  or  god,  and  has  control  over  the  lesser 
spirits  and  is  able  to  overcome  the  Kwei.    The  ob- 


Religious  Conditions  183 

ject  of  the  worship  of  Heaven  and  the  other  gods 
with  innumerable  religious  ceremonies  is  to  obtain 
protection  against  the  malign  influences  of  the  host 
of  specters. 

Ancestral  Worship.  We  are  now  in  a  position  to 
understand  ancestral  worship,  and  the  important 
place  it  occupies  in  Chinese  religion.  Man,  being 
possessed  of  a  Shen,  is  naturally  immortal,  and 
hence  after  death  his  spirit  may  be  worshiped.  He 
becomes  one  of  the  gods,  and  must  be  propitiated 
like  the  rest.  It  is  incumbent  upon  the  members 
of  each  family  to  worship  the  spirits  of  their  own 
ancestors.  The  sacrifices  offered  to  them  are  not, 
as  some  suppose,  merely  the  projection  of  filial 
piety  beyond  the  grave,  but  are  inspired  by  other 
motives.  As  Shen,  the  ancestors  are  able  to  shower 
blessings  down  upon  their  descendants  and  to  de- 
fend them  from  evil.  If,  however,  the  ancestral 
shades  are  neglected,  and  they  become  offended, 
misfortune  instead  of  happiness  will  be  incurred  by 
those  who  have  been  remiss.  From  such  beliefs 
have  been  developed  the  elaborate  ceremonials  con- 
nected with  the  burial  and  the  worship  of  the  dead. 

Conception  of  Tao  or  Universal  Reason.  One 
other  idea  must  be  mentioned,  which  colors  the 
whole  of  Chinese  religious  thought.  It  is  the  con- 
ception of  Tao,  Universal  Order  or  Reason.  The 
relation  between  the  Yang  and  the  Yin  and  the 
whole  course  of  nature  is  regulated  by  Tao.  The 
revolution  of  the  heavenly  bodies  and  the  return 
of  the  seasons  is  due  to  the  same  principle.    When 


184  The  Emergency  in  China 

we  come  to  man,  it  becomes  his  highest  duty  to 
live  in  accord  with  Tao  or  the  Universal  Reason, 
for  in  this  way  all  human  relationships  will  become 
harmonious,  and  peace  and  order  will  prevail  in 
nature,  in  government,  and  in  society.  When  there 
is  opposition  between  man  and  Tao  all  things  are 
thrown  into  confusion. 

Confucianism.  Bearing  these  primeval  Chinese 
religious  ideas  in  mind,  we  can  go  on  to  ask  in 
what  relationship  Confucianism  stands  to  them? 
As  has  often  been  stated,  Confucius  did  not  claim 
to  be  an  originator,  but  a  transmitter.  His  purpose 
was  not  to  found  a  new  religious  system,  but  to 
conserve  and  hand  down  to  posterity  the  ancient 
religious  and  moral  conceptions,  and  for  the  ac- 
complishment of  this  purpose  he  devoted  his  ener- 
gies to  gathering  together  the  teaching  of  those 
who  preceded  him  and  to  editing  the  ancient  books 
of  China. 

Rests  Back  on  Earlier  Ideas.  His  ethical  system 
is  based  on  these  early  religious  beliefs,  and  when 
we  refer  to  him  as  an  ethical  teacher  and  not  as  a 
founder  of  a  religion  we  speak  correctly,  but  per- 
haps we  do  not  sufficiently  recognize  the  fact  that 
his  moral  teaching  is  intimately  connected  with  the 
ancient  religion  of  China.  This  is  evident  from  the 
important  place  he  gave  to  ancestral  worship,  and 
from  his  reverence  for  Heaven  and  Shang-ti,  the 
supreme  Shen. 

Factors  of  Early  Belief.  When  we  study  the 
ancient  literature  of  China,  we  find  in  the  oldest 


Religious  Conditions  185 

Chinese  book,  the  Book  of  History,  a  description 
of  the  worship  of  four  thousand  years  ago.  It 
speaks  of  "the  temple  of  the  Accomplished  Ances- 
tor, the  sacrifice  to  the  Supreme  Ruler,  and  the 
offerings  to  the  spirits  of  the  hills  and  rivers,  and 
to  those  presiding  over  mounds,  dykes,  plains,  and 
forests,  and  to  the  spirits  of  the  sages  and  worthies 
of  ancient  times."  It  is  a  mistake  to  think  of  the 
ancient  religion  of  China  as  pure  monotheism.  The 
Chinese  mind  has  always  had  the  idea  of  a  hier- 
archy, presided  over  by  one  head,  Shang-ti,  with 
numerous  subordinate  ranks  of  executive  officers, 
or  administrators  of  the  different  branches  of  the 
universe;  and  a  worship  was  paid  to  them  all. 

Function  of  the  Emperor.  The  worship  of  the 
Supreme  Ruler  practically  became  more  and  more 
restricted  to  the  emperor.  At  the  winter  solstice 
on  the  Altar  of  Heaven  in  Peking,  he  as  the  high 
priest  of  all  his  people  offered  sacrifices  to  Shang- 
ti  with  impressive  ceremonies.  The  common  peo- 
ple confined  their  worship  to  the  lesser  spirits  and 
their  ancestors. 

Confucian  View  of  Man's  Nature.  Confucius 
believed  in  the  original  purity  of  man's  nature,  and 
it  was  this  that  he  endeavored  to  restore  in  the  age 
in  which  he  lived.  He  constantly  preached  the  ne- 
cessity for  the  rectification  of  the  heart.  He  held 
that  all  reform  must  begin  there.  When  the  heart 
has  been  rectified,  then  man  will  enter  into  his 
proper  relations  with  others.  When  asked  to  state 
the  whole  duty  of  man  in  one  word,  he  answered 


1 86  The  Emergency  in  China 

that  it  was  the  word  "reciprocity"  and  expanded 
his  meaning  in  the  Chinese  golden  rule,  "do  not  do 
unto  others  what  you  would  not  have  them  do  to 
you."  ^ 

In  his  development  of  the  five  relationships — 
those  between  prince  and  minister,  father  and  son, 
husband  and  wife,  older  brother  and  younger 
brother,  friend  and  friend,  and  in  his  exposition  of 
the  five  great  virtues, — Benevolence,  Righteousness, 
Propriety,  Wisdom,  and  Fidelity, — his  purpose  was 
to  teach  men  to  live  in  accord  with  Tao,  the  Uni- 
versal Order  or  Reason,  and  thus  to  promote 
earthly  harmony  and  prosperity. 

Practical  Defect  of  the  System.  One  of  the  im- 
perfections of  Confucianism  as  an  ethical  system  is 
that  it  is  apt  to  lead  to  self-righteousness  and  hy- 
pocrisy. It  is  similar  to  the  pharisaical  legislation 
of  ancient  Judea.  Man  by  his  unaided  efforts  thinks 
that  he  can  aspire  to  become  "the  princely  man" 
with  all  his  virtues,  and  when  he  fails  to  reach  this 
altitude  pretends  to  have  done  so,  and  is  eager  to 
be  admired  as  the  paragon  of  all  that  is  lofty  and 
noble. 

Taoism.  Taoism  is  older  than  Confucianism,  but 
its  later  evolution  as  a  religious  cult  of  magic  and 
necromancy  took  place  after  the  time  of  the  great 
sage.      Its   great   classic,  the   Tao-Teh    King,  was 

*Very  often  superficial  critics  speak  of  the  similarity  be- 
tween the  teaching  of  Christ  and  Confucius  in  regard  to  the 
golden  rule.  A  little  reflection  will  show  that  there  is  a  world 
of  difference  between  the  two.  One  inculcates  active  benevo- 
lence, the  other  the  avoidance  of  doing  harm. 


Religious  Conditions  187 

written  by  Laotze  (604  B.  C).  In  this  mystico- 
pantheistical  book,  in  which  are  many  things  hard 
to  understand,  we  find  the  same  conception  of  Tao. 
According  to  its  teachings  the  cause  of  all  unhap- 
piness  and  unrest  is  owing  to  the  fact  that  men 
have  departed  from  Tao;  that  instead  of  following 
the  law  of  nature,  they  have  made  for  themselves 
artificial  laws ;  instead  of  passive  acquiescence,  they 
are  full  of  self-assertiveness ;  instead  of  quiescent 
inactivity,  they  are  fond  of  strenuous  activity. 
Laotze  developed  his  idea  in  such  a  paradoxical 
way  that  his  teaching  was  only  comprehended  by 
scholars,  yet  at  the  same  time  it  must  be  recog- 
nized that  he  has  influenced  the  serious  thought  of 
China  to  a  remarkable  extent. 

Animistic  in  Spirit.  Taoism  as  a  religious  cult  is 
in  strict  keeping  with  Chinese  animism  as  mani- 
fested in  its  two  forms,  nature  worship,  and  the  wor- 
ship of  the  dead.  Its  charms,  magic,  and  incanta- 
tions have  as  their  object  the  exorcizing  of  evil 
spirits,  and  the  defeating  of  their  baleful  influences. 
The  strong  superstition  in  regard  to  the  feng-shui, 
which  in  the  past  has  been  one  of  the  chief  obstacles 
to  progress,  is  nothing  more  nor  less  than  the  be- 
lief in  evil  spirits  residing  in  wind  and  water.  To 
change  the  configuration  of  the  earth's  surface  in 
any  way  was  to  disturb  them,  and  the  offending 
party  was  sure  to  be  visited  with  some  misfortune. 

Buddhistic  Influence.  When  Buddhism  came  in- 
to China,  it  threatened  to  undermine  the  hold  which 
Taoism  had  gained  on  the  people.     As  a  conse- 


1 88  The  Emergency  in  China 

quence,  Taoism  adopted  many  of  the  features  of 
the  newer  cult.  It  borrowed  from  the  new  religion 
temples,  monasteries,  services,  legends,  and  idols. 
In  imitation  of  the  Three  Precious  Buddhas,  it  set 
up  its  own  trinity  of  the  Three  Pure  Ones,  and 
introduced  the  worship  of  the  Gemmeous  Sover- 
eign, *'The  Supreme  Ruler." 

Taoist  Burden  of  Demonology.  Taoism  has  be- 
come a  great  curse  in  China  because  of  the  im- 
portant place  it  gives  to  demonology.  The  people 
are  priest-ridden  on  account  of  their  fear  of  the 
evil  spirits,  and  spend  their  money  in  all  sorts  of 
devices  to  ward  off  their  influence.  Nothing  can  be 
done  without  first  consulting  a  priest  and  great 
care  must  be  used  in  choosing  lucky  days.  On  a 
Chinese  baby's  cap  you  will  notice  a  small  mirror, 
fastened  in  the  front.  This  is  a  charm,  for  when 
the  evil  demons  seek  to  harm  the  child,  they  will 
be  frightened  away  by  the  reflection  of  their  own 
hideous  selves.  A  boy  will  come  to  school  with 
an  earring  in  one  of  his  ears,  and  you  will  be  given 
the  following  explanation.  The  priest  had  informed 
the  parents  that  the  evil  spirits  would  seek  to  harm 
their  son  and  advised  them  to  outwit  the  demons 
by  making  it  appear  that  the  child  is  a  girl. 

Burning  of  Paper  Articles.  One  of  the  curious 
superstitions  connected  with  Taoism  is  that  articles 
made  of  paper  when  burnt  at  the  side  of  the  graves 
will  turn  into  materials  which  may  be  made  use 
of  in  the  spirit  world.  It  would  be  almost  impos- 
sible to  calculate  the  sum  of  money  used  annually 


ANCESTOR  WORSHIP  AT   THE  GRAVE 
PAPER  HORSE,  CART,  AND  SLAVES  TO  BURN  AT  THE  GRAVE 

lpl88I 


Religious  Conditions  189 

for  purchasing  paper  money  in  connection  with 
burials. 

Reasons  for  the  Acceptance  of  Buddhism.  Next 
we  must  ask  how  Buddhism  managed  to  obtain 
an  entrance  into  China.  When  it  was  introduced  by 
the  Emperor  Ming-ti,  in  62  A.  D.,  its  principal  at- 
traction to  the  Chinese  was  its  teaching  in  regard 
to  the  life  hereafter.  Confucianism  and  pure  Tao- 
ism were  silent  as  to  the  condition  of  the  soul  after 
death,  and  hence  the  people  were  ready  to  listen 
to  a  religion  which  taught  them  how  they  might 
secure  future  bliss  and  which  depicted  for  them  the 
joys  of  Paradise.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that 
in  Northern  Buddhism,  the  form  which  has  been 
accepted  by  the  Chinese,  little  is  said  about  Nir- 
vana, and  the  extinction  of  personal  consciousness, 
but  in  its  place  the  delights  of  the  sensuous  Para- 
dise have  been   introduced. 

Promise  of  Eternal  Peace.  The  doctrine  of  the 
transmigration  of  souls  was  alien  to  Chinese 
thought,  and  at  first  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  it 
could  be  reconciled  with  ancestral  worship,  for  it 
seems  a  little  inconsistent  to  be  worshiping  the 
spirit  of  your  ancestor  and  at  the  same  time  to  be- 
lieve it  may  have  become  reincarnated  in  some  ani- 
mal, for  instance  in  a  sheep  or  a  dog.  The  Chinese 
have  accepted  the  theory  of  metempsychosis,  how- 
ever, because  even  if  it  implies  a  long  course  of 
trial  and  purification  for  the  human  soul,  yet  in  the 
end  it  promises  eternal  peace. 

Polytheism  No  Barrier.     It  was  easy  to  add  the 


IQO  The  Emergency  in  China 

Buddhist  deities  to  the  already  extensive  pantheon, 
and  the  Chinese  will  worship  Buddhist  or  Taoist 
gods  indiscriminately,  and  with  the  same  satisfac- 
tion. 

Goddess  of  Mercy.  Other  reasons  might  be  men- 
tioned to  account  for  the  popularity  of  Buddhism, 
especially  the  appeal  to  the  heart  and  the  affections 
made  by  such  a  deity  as  the  goddess  of  Mercy. 
The  attitude  of  the  Chinese  toward  her  is  similar 
to  that  of  Roman  Catholics  toward  the  Virgin 
Mary.  The  writer  recalls  seeing  a  Buddhist  priest 
in  one  of  the  temples  on  the  sacred  island  of  Poo- 
too,  near  Ningpo,  whose  arm  was  tattooed  with  an 
inscription  in  Latin  to  the  Mother  of  Christ.  The 
man  was  evidently  a  renegade  Roman  Catholic; 
and  when  asked  why  he  was  serving  in  a  Buddhist 
temple,  pointed  to  the  image  of  the  goddess  of 
Mercy  and  replied  that  she  was  identical  with  the 
Queen  of  Heaven. 

Christian  Points  of  Contact.  Such  then  in  out- 
line are  some  of  the  religious  notions  of  the  Chi- 
nese, and  the  missionary  does  well  to  have  some 
clear  idea  in  regard  to  them,  when  he  comes  preach- 
ing his  message  of  salvation  in  Jesus  Christ.  He 
will  find  points  of  contact,  and  at  the  same  time  he 
will  find  conceptions  that  are  erroneous  but  most 
difficult  to  eradicate,  as  for  instance  ancestral  wor- 
ship. DeGroot  says :  "It  is  for  Christianity  impos- 
sible to  tolerate  ancestral  worship,  almost  as  im- 
possible as  it  is  for  a  Chinaman  to  renounce  it." 

Modification  of  Religious  Conceptions.    The  new 


Religious  Conditions  191 

forces  making  themselves  felt  in  China  since  the 
impact  of  Western  civilization  upon  the  East  have 
necessarily  had  a  great  influence  in  the  way  of 
modifying  religious  conceptions.  The  spread  of  a 
knowledge  of  science  brings  in  new  ideas  in  regard 
to  nature.  Instead  of  a  world  ruled  by  countless 
spirits  and  demons,  there  comes  the  notion  of  the 
reign  of  law,  and  polytheism  and  polydemonism  are 
rudely  shaken. 

Influence  of  Evolutionary  Views.  The  theory  of 
evolution  has  been  readily  accepted,  for  it  fits  in 
after  a  fashion  with  the  crude  notion  of  everything 
being  a  development  of  the  two  principles,  the 
Yang  and  the  Yin.  The  orthodox  commentary  on 
the  Chinese  classics,  written  by  Chu  Hsi,  makes 
Heaven  impersonal  reason,  and  thus  prepares  the 
way  for  agnosticism.  Such  books  as  Evolution  and 
Ethics  by  Huxley,  The  Origin  of  Species  by  Dar- 
win, The  Principles  of  Sociology  by  Spencer  have 
been  translated  into  Chinese  and  are  widely  read. 
The  new  magazines  which  now  circulate  through- 
out the  country  contain  articles  full  of  terms  taken 
from  the  vocabulary  of  evolution,  and  the  educated 
Chinese  constantly  talk  about  ''the  struggle  for  ex^ 
istence"  and  "the  survival  of  the  fittest."  The 
problem  of  the  Christian  missionary  in  China  to- 
day consists  not  only  in  dealing  with  the  religious 
ideas  of  Confucianism,  Buddhism,  and  Taoism,  but 
in  meeting  and  combating  the  agnosticism  and 
rationalism  of  the  West  in  their  new  Eastern  garb. 
Japanese     Medium.       Much     of    this    Western 


192  The  Emergency  in  China 

thought  comes  in  through  the  medium  of  Japan. 
As  is  well  known,  the  Japanese  are  unwearying 
translators  of  Western  books.  "Chinese  students 
can  read  Japanese  works  after  six  months'  study  of 
grammar,  the  written  characters  of  one  language 
having  been  borrowed  from  the  older  country." 
Japan  to-day  stands  in  grave  danger  of  being  over- 
whelmed by  the  philosophy  of  materialism,  and 
China  is  only  too  apt  to  meet  with  the  same  fate. 

Practical  Aspects  of  Speculation.  An  interesting 
article  written  by  Dr.  Lin  Boon  King  appeared  a 
short  time  ago  in  the  World's  Chinese  Students' 
Journal.  The  subject  was  "Confucian  Cosmogony 
and  Theism,"  and  the  writer's  object  was  to  prove 
that  the  former  was  more  in  keeping  with  modern 
scientific  ideas  than  the  latter.  Students  in  mission 
schools  are  influenced  by  agnostic  literature,  and 
begin  to  do  what  they  never  did  before — object  to 
the  supernatural  element  in  Christianity.  Some  of 
them  will  frankly  confess  that  the  doctrine  of  the 
incarnation,  and  the  resurrection  of  Christ  are 
stumbling-blocks  in  the  way  of  their  accepting  the 
Christian  religion.  At  present  the  great  mass  of 
the  people  have  not  become  acquainted  with  these 
new  ideas,  but  one  wonders  what  will  be  the  result 
when  they  become  current  throughout  the  whole 
nation. 

Christianity  and  Ancestral  Worship.  Ancestral 
worship  has  been  called  the  Rock  of  Gibraltar  in 
the  Chinese  religious  system.  Caste  in  India  and 
ancestral  worship  in  China  have  stood  out  as  the 


Religious  Conditions  193 

two  almost  impregnable  fortresses.  So  impossible 
has  it  seemed  to  persuade  the  Chinese  to  abandon 
the  worship  of  the  dead  that  some  have  advocated 
a  policy  of  compromise.  They  have  tried  to  show 
that  it  was  not  necessarily  idolatrous,  and  that  it 
might  be  modified  in  such  a  way  as  to  make  it 
consistent  with  Christianity.  We  will  not  enter 
here  into  a  lengthy  argument,  but  will  simply  call 
attention  to  the  significant  fact  that  no  Christian 
Chinese  has  ever  come  forward  in  defense  of  an- 
cestral worship.  He  is  firmly  convinced  that  an- 
cestral worship  and  the  worship  of  Almighty  God 
are  utterly  incompatible  with  one  another.  Pro- 
fessor Giles,  of  Cambridge  University,  says :  "I  feel 
bound  to  say  that  in  my  opinion  these  ancestral  ob- 
servances can  only  be  regarded,  strictly  speaking, 
as  worship  and  nothing  else." 

Individualism  Subverting  Ancestral  Worship. 
The  introduction  of  Western  thought  is  slowly 
undermining  ancestral  worship,  and  in  that  way 
is  proving  a  powerful  auxiliary  to  missionary  work. 
The  West  advocates  the  development  of  the  indi- 
vidual and  individual  rights,  the  East  emphasizes 
the  importance  of  the  family,  the  clan,  and  the  race. 
An  Oriental  never  acted  simply  as  an  individual 
unit,  but  his  own  individuality  was  merged  in  a 
larger  whole.  Now  there  has  come  the  stirring  of 
individualism,  and  it  has  caused  a  tremendous  re- 
action against  the  old  idea  of  solidarity  and  sub- 
mission to  the  will  of  the  family.  Sometimes  we 
see  instances  of  individualism  run  mad,  and  filial 


194  The  Emergency  in  China 

piety,  the  greatest  of  the  virtues  in  China,  is  thrown 
to  the  winds — the  individual  claiming  the  right  to 
be  his  own  master  without  regard  to  the  wishes  of 
any  one.  The  following  example  of  the  new  spirit 
is  worth  quoting.  A  father  wrote  to  his  son  at 
school,  admonishing  him  for  some  misconduct.  The 
son  replied  to  the  following  effect:  "You  are  an 
individual  and  so  am  I.  As  two  individuals  our 
opinions  are  worthy  of  equal  consideration,  and  I 
see  no  reason  why  I  should  forego  my  own  opinion 
in  favor  of  yours." 

Need  of  a  Freeing  Influence.  Although  ancestral 
worship  has  had  some  beneficial  results,  yet  we 
must  recognize  the  fact  that  the  old  cult  has  been 
a  dead  hand,  arresting  progress,  for  it  teaches  that 
a  man  must  follow  the  wishes  of  his  parents  and 
grandparents  after  they  are  dead  as  much  as  when 
they  were  alive.  It  will  be  sad  if  extreme  individ- 
ualism entirely  destroys  the  old  conception  of  fam- 
ily solidarity,  yet  at  the  same  time  we  must  recog- 
nize that  it  was  absolutely  necessary  that  some  cor- 
rective should  be  introduced  to  modify  ideas  which 
were  holding  China  enchained  in  the  bonds  of  con- 
servatism. The  weakening  of  the  hold  of  ancestral 
worship  on  the  minds  of  the  Chinese  will  remove 
one  of  the  great  hindrances  to  the  acceptance  of 
the  gospel  of  Christ.  Tyler,  in  his  book  on  Primi- 
tive Culture,  says :  "Interesting  problems  are  opened 
out  to  the  Western  mind  by  the  spectacle  of  a 
great  people  who  for  thousands  of  years  have 
been  seeking  the  living  among  the  dead.    Nowhere 


Religious  Conditions  195 

is  the  connection  between  parental  authority  and 
conservatism  more  graphically  shown.  The  wor- 
ship of  ancestors,  begun  during  their  life,  is  not  in- 
terrupted but  intensified  when  death  makes  them 
deities.  The  Chinese,  prostrate  bodily  and  mentally 
before  the  memorial  tablets  which  contain  the  souls 
of  his  ancestors,  little  thinks  that  he  is  all  the  while 
proving  to  mankind  how  vast  a  power  unlimited 
filial  obedience,  prohibiting  change  from  ancestral 
institutions,  may  exert  in  stopping  the  advance  of 
civilization." 

Analysis  of  Religious  Situation.  In  a  transition 
period  like  the  present,  it  is  difficult  to  give  a  com- 
plete and  satisfactory  analysis  of  the  present  re- 
ligious situation.  We  shall  endeavor  to  point  out 
however  some  of  the  currents  of  thought  existing 
among  the  educated  classes. 

Spread  of  Materialistic  Philosophy.  In  the  first 
place,  there  are  some  who  are  out  and  out  material- 
ists. They  consider  that  it  is  a  great  mistake  to 
bother  about  religion  at  all.  They  are  content  with 
materialistic  philosophy  and  believe  that  the  means 
of  material  development  is  all  that  China  needs  to 
learn  from  the  West.  They  ignore  entirely  the 
higher  thought  and  the  deepest  principles  of  West- 
ern civilization,  and  despise  the  Christian  religion. 
As  an  example  of  a  nation  becoming  powerful  with- 
out accepting  Christianity,  they  point  to  the  won- 
derful career  of  Japan.  To  their  minds  religion  only 
promotes  confusion  and  engenders  useless  discus- 
sion. Scientific  positivism  is  looked  upon  as  the  cure 


196  The  Emergency  in  China 

for  all  of  China's  trouble,  and  all  religions  alike, 
their  own  and  that  of  the  West,  they  regard  as  idle 
superstitions.  Such  views  are  often  advocated  in 
magazine  articles  and  are  exerting  a  profound  influ- 
ence upon  the  minds  of  the  young.  We  would  not 
be  alarmists,  but  we  cannot  fail  to  see  that  one  of 
the  gravest  dangers  in  connection  with  the  future 
civilization  of  the  world  lies  in  the  possibility  of  the 
impact  of  the  West  upon  the  East  resulting  in  the 
spread  of  materialistic  thought  throughout  the 
East. 

Neo-Confucianism.  Secondly,  there  are  those 
who  are  strongly  of  the  opinion  that  what  is  needed 
is  the  revival  of  Confucianism.  The  late  Empress 
Dowager  shortly  before  her  death  issued  an  edict 
raising  Confucius  to  the  status  of  a  god,  and  en- 
joining that  he  should  be  worshiped  with  rites  and 
ceremonies  equal  to  those  used  in  the  worship  of 
Heaven  and  Earth.  This  deification  of  the  ancient 
sage  and  philosopher  did  not  altogether  commend 
itself  to  the  literati,  for  they  preferred  to  regard  him 
with  the  greatest  reverence  as  the  teacher  of  all 
under  heaven,  but  did  not  care  to  see  him  exalted 
to  a  position  which  he  himself  never  claimed. 

Reasons  for  the  Revival.  There  is  however  a 
strong  desire  to  revive  Confucianism.  "The  official 
world  sees  in  it  a  sufficient  moral  and  religious  code 
for  the  education  of  Chinese  youth  and  does  not 
show  any  special  interest  in  any  other  forms  of 
belief."  Neo-Confucianism  is  interpreted  very  lib- 
erally.    "They  see  that  although  human  nature  is 


Religious  Conditions  197 

ever  the  same,  subject  to  the  same  moral  duties 
and  requirements,  the  conditions  of  life  are  always 
changing,  and  to  them  the  forms  and  practises  of 
government  have  to  be  adjusted.  .  .  .  The  leaders 
of  the  movement  seek  to  apply  Confucian  thought 
in  the  light  of  their  own  experience,  and  with  refer- 
ence to  the  present  needs  of  China."^ 

Predictions.  Ku  Hung-ming,  a  brilliant  writer, 
calls  the  movement  for  the  conservation  of  Confu- 
cianism *'the  Chinese  Oxford  Movement,"  and  pre- 
dicts that  "Confucianism  with  its  way  of  the  supe- 
rior man,  little  as  the  Englishman  suspects,  will  one 
day  change  the  social  order  and  break  up  the  civili- 
zation of  Europe."  Confucianism  is  naturally  a 
rallying-point  for  patriots  and  conservatives  too 
proud  to  accept  a  foreign  religion,  and  for  genera- 
tions it  will  be  a  strong  center  of  resistance. 

Writings  of  Wang  Yang-ming.  The  Confucian 
revival  has  brought  about  the  renewed  study  of 
the  writings  of  Wang  Yang-ming,  a  great  writer 
who  flourished  in  the  Ming  dynasty.  He  points  out 
that  "the  life  of  contemplation  must  be  supple- 
mented by  the  life  of  action,  and  it  is  this  call  to 
action  that  is  so  stirring  to  the  contemporary 
Oriental  world." 

Tract  Claims.  Tracts  are  published  exhorting 
the  people  of  China  to  return  to  the  true  teaching 
of  the  great  sage.  We  have  read  one  which  puts 
the  argument  in  this  way.    The  present  disorder  in 

^  Paul  S.  Reinsch,  Intellectual  and  Political  Currents  in  the 
Far  East,  151. 


198  The  Emergency  in  China 

China  is  caused  by  the  want  of  harmony  between  the 
Yang  and  the  Yin.  If  all  men  will  follow  the  moral 
laws  as  expounded  by  Confucius,  then  in  regard  to 
society  the  harmony  between  these  two  great  prin- 
ciples will  be  reestablished.  That  in  turn  will 
exert  a  potent  influence  over  physical  forces,  and 
harmony  will  be  brought  about  in  the  realm  of 
nature.  When  that  has  been  accomplished,  the 
seasons  will  be  regular,  the  rains  will  fall  at  the 
proper  times,  and  the  harvests  will  be  abundant. 
As  a  consequence  the  poverty  of  China  will  be  re- 
lieved and  the  country  will  become  once  more  a 
strong  and  flourishing  nation,  and  the  day  of  humil- 
iation will  have  passed. 

Currents  of  the  Changing  Order.  The  vigorous 
attempt  to  resuscitate  the  old  cult  shows  on  the 
one  hand  that  the  Chinese  are  seeking  for  a  national 
religion,  and  on  the  other  is  an  evidence  that  they 
fear  the  advances  of  Christianity.  As  we  have 
stated  more  than  once,  many  of  China's  greatest 
men  dread  the  spread  of  materialistic  ideas  and  ad- 
vocate the  retention  of  Confucian  teaching  so  that 
the  things  of  the  spirit  shall  not  be  entirely  ne- 
glected. 

Revival  of  Buddhism.  In  the  third  place,  there 
has  been  an  attempt,  though  not  on  a  large  scale, 
to  bring  about  a  revival  of  Buddhism.  Tan  Sze- 
tong,  one  of  the  reformers  of  1898  who  was  exe- 
cuted by  the  order  of  the  late  Empress  Dowager, 
published  a  book  called  Benevolence,  in  which  he 
compares  the  relative  merits  of  the  three  religions, 


Religious  Conditions  199 

Christianity,  Confucianism,  and  Buddhism.  "He 
regarded  Buddhism  as  the  best  in  theory  and  easiest 
in  application."  Chang  Pin-lin,  the  editor  of  the 
principal  revolutionary  organ,  The  People,  is  a 
strong  advocate  of  Buddhism.  He  is  convinced 
that  the  chief  need  of  China  in  the  present  crisis  is 
strong  religious  feeling,  and  he  believes  that  it  can 
be  engendered  by  this  Oriental  religion.  Buddhist 
missionaries  have  come  over  from  Japan  to  help  in 
the  work  of  spreading  the  higher  elements  of  Bud- 
dhist philosophy. 

Elements  of  Strength  and  Weakness.  To  some  it 
seems  as  if  the  cult  v^ras  so  loaded  dov^n  w^ith  idol- 
worship  and  so  debased  by  superstition  that  it  will 
be  impossible  to  resuscitate  it.  But  others  hold 
that  a  new  era  has  begun  for  Buddhism,  not  only 
in  southern  Asia,  but  also  in  China  and  Japan. 
It  is  certainly  significant  that  among  the  most 
prominent  national  leaders  in  China  at  the  present 
day  we  find  those  who  accept  Buddhism  and 
strongly  urge  its  adoption.  The  Chinese  are  not, 
however,  a  metaphysical  people.  Buddhism  as  a 
practical  system  for  avoiding  future  punishments 
and  obtaining  future  rewards  has  commended  itself 
to  them,  but  only  a  few  scholars  are  able  to  follow 
its  abstruse  speculations. 

Eclecticism,  Fourthly,  we  must  refer  to  ten- 
dencies toward  eclecticism.  In  Japan,  as  we  know, 
there  are  those  "who  would  fain  amalgamate  with 
Christianity  the  strong  points  of  Shinto,  Buddhism, 
and  Confucianism,  making  of  the  whole  a  rich  mo- 


200  The  Emergency  in  China 

saic,"  and  there  is  a  similar  school  of  thought  in 
China.  Already  we  meet  with  a  cult  that  calls 
itself  Confucio-Christianity.  In  Shanghai  there  is 
quite  a  strong  movement  in  this  direction  and  a 
society  has  been  formed  called  the  World's  Re- 
ligions Society.  The  object  of  the  founders  is  to 
cull  from  each  religion  its  highest  teaching  and 
make  a  compound  which  will  be  superior  to  alL 
As  in  the  past,  attempts  of  such  a  character  will 
appeal  to  a  certain  proportion  of  the  enlightened 
classes,  but  will  prove  powerless  to  exert  a  strong 
influence  on  the  minds  of  the  people  as  a  whole. 
No  eclectic  religion,  as  history  teaches,  has  ever 
been  able  to  sway  the  hearts  and  mold  the  lives  of 
the  masses. 

Iconoclastic  Tendencies.  In  connection  with  the 
recent  revolution  there  has  been  a  good  deal  of 
iconoclasm,  just  as  there  was  in  the  days  of  the 
Taiping  Rebellion.  In  many  places  temples  have 
been  sacked,  and  the  gods  pulled  down  from  their 
places.  The  idols  and  the  representations  of  the 
halls  of  purgatory  found  in  Buddhist  temples  have 
been  smashed  into  pieces  and  burned  in  bonfires. 
The  idolatry  connected  with  Buddhism  and  Taoism 
has  little  chance  to  withstand  the  onslaught  of 
the  new  scientific  ideas.  Popular  Buddhism  and 
Taoism  command  but  little  respect.  The  lives  of 
many  of  the  monks  are  known  to  be  immoral.  The 
monasteries  are  regarded  as  refuges  of  an  idle  and 
vicious  class.  The  people  are  no  longer  willing  to 
be  held  in  bondage  by  the  fear  and  superstitions 


TEMPLE  CONVERTED  INTO  CHRISTIAN  SCHOOL 
TEMPLE  CONVERTED  INTO  GOVERNMENT  SCHOOL 


[p  200] 


Religious  Conditions  201 

which  it  is  the  business  of  these  men  to  keep  aHve. 
Attitude  toward   Christianity.     It  would  not  be 
correct  to  say  that  there  is  a  national   movement 
toward  Christianity  in  China,  but  it  is  quite  possi- 
ble that  before  long  there  may  be  such,  for  there 
are  many  signs  of  increased  interest  in  the  teach- 
ings of  Christ.    The  Chinese  perceive  the  practical 
results   of   Christianity,   and    they   argue   that   the 
greatness  of  the  powerful  nations  of  the  West  must 
in  some  measure  be  due  to  the  religion  they  have 
adopted.     This  leads  them  to  inquire  whether  its 
acceptance  by  the  Chinese  might  not  prove  benefi- 
cial.   They  are  seeking  to  make  their  nation  strong, 
and  are  willing  to  exarnine  into  the  claims  of  a  re- 
ligion which  has  proved  a  blessing  to  mankind.    A 
short  time  ago  a  grandson  of  the  Marquis  Tseng, 
who  was  one  of  the  great  generals  on  the  imperial 
side  in  the  Taiping  Rebellion,  published  a  tract  ad- 
vocating   the    adoption    of    the    Christian    religion. 
Although  not  himself  a  member  of  the  Christian 
Church,   he    adduced   the   following   arguments   in 
support  of  such  a  course:     Christianity  inculcates 
the  principles  of  liberty,  and  deliverance  from  all 
fear,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  courage  of  Christ  who 
freely  gave  up  his  life  for  the  sake  of  his  country- 
men.    He  holds  up  Jesus  Christ  as  a  great  inspira- 
tion to  patriotism. 

Growing  Spirit  of  Investigation.  The  blind  hos- 
tility and  indifference  toward  the  Christian  religion 
are  giving  place  to  the  spirit  of  investigation.  Many 
are    seeking   to    understand    it    and   are    diligently 


202  The  Emergency  in  China 

reading  the  New  Testament.  It  is  significant  to 
note  that  among  the  Chinese  students  in  Japan 
quite  a  large  number  have  been  converted  to  Chris- 
tianity. The  fact  that  all  these  Christians  wqtq  in 
entire  sympathy  with  the  aims  of  the  revolution, 
and  that  many  of  them  have  played  an  influential 
part  in  the  establishment  of  the  new  government 
has  made  the  religion  they  profess  more  popular 
and  brought  it  into  greater  prominence.  In  the 
city  of  Yangchow,  General  Hsu,  who  after  the 
revolution  acted  as  the  Chief  Magistrate,  although 
not  a  Christian  invited  missionaries  to  come  and 
preach  to  his  officers  and  soldiers.  At  meetings 
held  in  a  large  theater  he  presided  while  preachers 
held  forth  to  audiences  of  1,500  men.  Such  an  oc- 
currence was  unheard  of  in  the  days  of  the  Manchu 
dynasty. 

Religious  Toleration.  In  endeavoring  to  give 
some  account  of  the  currents  of  religious  thought 
in  China  at  the  present  time,  mention  should  be 
made  of  the  growth  of  the  spirit  of  tolerance. 
Formerly  the  question  was  often  asked  as  to 
whether  the  Chinese  were  tolerant  or  intolerant  in 
regard  to  religion.  Two  diametrically  opposite 
opinions  have  been  held.  Prof.  E.  H.  Parker  holds 
that  they  have  been  distinguished  by  their  liberality 
toward  all  religions,  while  Dr.  DeGroot  contends 
that  they  have  been  characterized  by  a  spirit  of  in- 
tolerance, and  quotes  in  support  of  his  position  the 
frequent  persecution  of  Buddhism  and  Mohamme- 
danism.   The  truth  would  appear  to  be  that  the  Chi- 


Religious  Conditions  203 

nese  have  been  tolerant  of  religious  opinions  just 
in  so  far  as  they  have  not  interfered  with  the  in- 
ternal government  of  the  country,  and  have  not 
been  in  opposition  to  any  national  observances. 
Whenever  they  have  seemed  to  exert  a  disturbing 
influence  on  national  institutions  or  social  customs, 
great  resentment  has  been  aroused,  and  persecution 
has  become  the  order  of  the  day.  We  believe  that 
the  hostile  attitude  toward  Christianity  which  has 
been  manifested  from  time  to  time  has  always  been 
caused  by  the  fear  that  the  Christian  Church  was 
establishing  a  foreign  government  within  the  gov- 
ernment. Christianity  has  been  resisted  from  po- 
litical more  than  from  religious  motives. 

Missionary  Interference.  In  the  past  there  has 
been  so  little  justice  in  Chinese  courts  that  the  mis- 
sionary was  tempted  to  interfere  on  behalf  of  his 
converts.  Enjoying  the  rights  of  extraterritoriality 
himself,  he  was  inclined  to  stretch  his  privilege  so 
as  to  make  it  extend  to  those  who  come  under  his 
pastoral  care.  This,  of  course,  antagonized  Chinese 
officialdom. 

Mistaken  Policy.  As  is  well  known,  the  Roman 
Catholic  Church  was  for  a  long  time  under  the  spe- 
cial protection  of  the  French  government  and  in 
its  propaganda  it  was  helped  by  the  pressure  which 
could  be  brought  to  bear  by  the  French  minister  on 
the  court  at  Peking.  Whenever  a  Roman  Catholic 
convert  got  into  trouble,  the  local  priest  almost  in- 
variably espoused  his  cause.  If  the  local  magis- 
trate decided  the  case  unfavorably,  the  priest  ap- 


204  The  Emergency  in  China 

pealed  to  the  minister  in  Peking,  who  in  turn 
brought  pressure  to  bear  at  the  capital  which  led 
to  the  official  being  reprimanded  or  deposed.  The 
Protestant  missionaries  were  not  entirely  innocent 
of  such  methods.  Although  not  supported  by  their 
governments  to  the  same  extent  as  the  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries  were  by  the  French  govern- 
ment, yet  sometimes  they  took  advantage  of  their 
own  special  privileges  to  persuade  the  Chinese  mag- 
istrates to  do  justice  to  their  converts.  Missiona- 
ries who  acted  in  this  way  were  guided  by  pure  mo- 
tives, believing  that  only  in  this  way  could  they 
secure  fair  treatment.  Naturally  they  thought  their 
converts  were  the  innocent  parties.  We  can  easily 
see  that  it  was  a  mistaken  policy  and  resulted  in 
more  harm  than  good.  Mr.  H.  B.  Morse  says: 
"When  the  missionary,  far  in  the  interior,  many 
miles  from  the  observing  eyes  of  his  consul,  trans- 
fers a  corner  of  his  protecting  cloak  to  his  poor 
Chinese  convert,  he  may  be  doing  what  is  right,  but 
it  is  not  lawful ;  and  that  is  the  naked  fact  under- 
lying many  an  episode  leading  to  a  riot."  This 
disagreeable  chapter  of  the  history  of  missions  we 
believe  has  now  been  finally  closed,  and  Christianity 
will  no  longer  be  unpopular  because  of  the  prev- 
alent belief  that  it  was  a  foreign  religion,  and  that 
it  gave  the  protection  of  foreign  governments  to  its 
converts. 

Popular  Place  of  Christianity.  Christianity  has 
become  popular.  The  leader  of  the  revolution,  Dr. 
Sun  Yat-sen,  is  a  Christian,  and  many  of  those  who 


Religious  Conditions  205 

took  a  leading  part  in  the  establishment  of  the  new 
government  were  members  of  the  Christian  Church. 
In  the  appointment  to  posts  of  honor  at  the  present 
time  no  discrimination  is  made  between  Christians 
and  non-Christians.  The  new  minister  to  Germany, 
Dr.  W.  W.  Yen,  is  an  avowed  Christian.  The  old 
mischievous  distinction  between  the  people  of  the 
Kingdom  and  the  people  of  the  Church  is  no  longer 
heard  and  all  have  become  brothers  in  one  republic. 

Policy  of  New  Government.  One  of  the  great 
benefits  arising  out  of  the  revolution  is  the  promise 
of  complete  religious  toleration.  Yuan  Shih-kai 
has  assured  the  representatives  of  the  Christian 
Church  that  the  new  government  will  adopt  the 
most  liberal  policy  in  regard  to  religion.  We  be- 
lieve that  all  disabilities  under  which  Christians 
now  labor  will  be  removed,  and  that  the  question 
of  religion  will  be  finally  removed  from  politics. 
The  example  of  the  United  States  has  been  a  great 
influence  over  the  minds  of  the  republican  leaders, 
and  we  may  expect  that  the  same  enlightened  atti- 
tude will  be  taken  in  regard  to  the  relation  between 
Church  and  state.  No  religion  should  be  supported 
by  the  government,  but  as  President  Taft  has  aptly 
said,  all  religions  and  all  churches  which  influence 
people  to  virtuous  living  should  be  entitled  to  full 
liberty. 

The  Crisis.  From  this  brief  review,  it  will  ap- 
pear that  during  the  present  critical  period  the 
Christian  Church  will  be  called  upon  to  face  man)'- 
problems.     The  old  religions  are  losing  their  hold. 


2o6  The  Emergency  in  China 

On  the  one  hand,  attempts  are  being  made  to  resus- 
citate them  into  new  life ;  and  on  the  other,  a  wave 
of  materialistic  thought  is  spreading  rapidly.  The 
opportunity  for  winning  China  to  Christ  is  greater 
than  ever  before.  Many  are  seeking  for  the  truth 
and  realize  that  China's  greatest  need  is  a  spiritual 
and  moral  reformation.  The  old  religions  are  pow- 
erless. Their  strength  has  been  exhausted  and  they 
cannot  furnish  the  new  spiritual  dynamic.  The  at- 
tempt to  reestablish  them  will  result  in  as  great  a 
failure  as  that  of  Julian  the  Apostate  in  the  later 
Roman  Empire.  The  religion  of  Christ  is  the  up- 
lifting power  wanted  by  China.  Surely  at  such  a 
time  a  supreme  effort  should  be  made  to  spread 
the  religion  of  the  Christ  who  said,  'T  am  the  way, 
the  truth,  and  the  life," — the  religion  which  was  in- 
tended by  its  Founder  to  be  universal,  and  which 
alone  can  satisfy  the  religious  longings  of  the  hu- 
man race. 

IMPORTANT   QUOTATIONS 

There  is,  indeed,  in  the  Chinese  system  no  god  beyond  the 
cosmos,  no  maker  of  it,  no  Yahweh,  no  Allah.  Creation  is 
simply  the  yearly  renovation  of  nature,  the  spontaneous  work 
of  heaven  and  earth,  repeating  itself  in  every  revolution  of 
the  Tao.     ... 

Belief  in  the  existence  of  the  evil  spirits  is  a  main  induce- 
ment to  the  worship  and  propitiation  of  heaven,  to  the  end  that 
it  may  withhold  its  avenging  kwei.  All  the  shen  or  gods, 
being  parts  of  the  Yang,  are  the  natural  enemies  of  the  kwei, 
because  these  are  the  constituents  of  the  Yin;  indeed,  the 
Yang  and  the  Yin  are  in  perpetual  conflict,  manifested  by 
alternation  of  day  and  night,  summer  and  winter,  heat  and 
cold.  The  purpose  of  the  worship  and  propitiation  of  the  gods 
is  to  induce  them  to  defend  man  against  the  world  of  evil 
spirits,   or,   by   descending  and   living   among  men,  to   drive 


Religious  Conditions  207 

those  spirits  away  by  their  overawing  presence.  That  cult  in 
fact  means  invocation  of  happiness ;  but  happiness  simply 
means  absence  of  misfortune  which  the  demons  bring.  Idol- 
atry in  China  means  the  disarming  of  demons  by  means  of 
the  gods. 

The  belief  in  a  world  of  devils,  which  are  of  high  influence 
upon  man,  is  in  China's  religion  even  more  than  a  basis ;  it  is 
a  principal  pillar  in  the  building  of  morality. 

The  Tao  or  order  of  the  universe,  which  is  the  yearly  mu- 
tation of  the  Yang  and  the  Yin,  is  perfectly  just  and  impartial 
to  all  men,  producing  and  protecting  them  all  in  the  same 
manner.  Heaven,  the  Yang  itself,  by  means  of  the  gods  re- 
wards the  good,  and  by  means  of  the  demons  punishes  the  bad, 
with  perfect  justice.  There  is,  accordingly,  in  this  world  no 
felicity  but  for  the  good.     ... 

The  excellence  of  the  man  who  assimilates  his  life  and 
conduct  with  the  Tao  is  preached  by  the  Yih  king  in  the  fol- 
lowing expressive  terms : 

"Yes,  the  great  man  is  he  who  assimilates  his  virtues  with 
those  of  heaven  and  earth,  his  intellect  with  the  sun  and  moon, 
his  rules  of  conduct  with  the  four  seasons,  his  fortunes  and 
misfortunes  with  the  kwei  and  the  shen.  He  behaves  in  ad- 
vance of  heaven  (that  is,  he  conforms  to  it  by  timely  initia- 
tive), and  consequently  heaven  does  not  go  against  him;  he 
follows  heaven  and  thus  reverently  adapts  his  conduct  to  the 
four  seasons,  and  so  heaven  again  does  not  go  against  him ; 
how  much  less  will  men  go  against  him,  and  how  much  less 
will  the  kwei  and  the  shen  do  so."     .     .     . 

Extraordinary  terrestrial  phenomena,  interpreted  as  de- 
rangements of  the  Tao,  have  been  officially  observed  and  re- 
corded in  China  by  thousands.  Observers  and  interpreters 
started  from  the  principle  that  any  motion  in  the  ground  por- 
tended evil,  since  the  normal  nature  of  earth  is  stability.    .    .    . 

Much  more  might  be  written  about  this  pretended  science, 
whose  father  is  religious  awe  of  the  majesty  and  works  of 
the  divine  universe  and  its  gods,  and  its  motlier  human  selfish- 
ness, desirous  of  utilizing  artificially  the  universe  for  worldly 
profit.  It  is  for  this  reason  a  hybrid  monster,  which  destroys 
the  mental  quiet  of  thousands  and  thousands  of  conscientious 
men,  tormenting  them  with  anxious  thoughts  about  their  fu- 
ture and  their  offspring,  and  constraining  them  to  impoverish 
themselves  for  the  profit  of  geomancers,  grave-brokers,  and 
land-owners.  It  disturbs  domestic  peace,  disseminating  dis- 
cord even  among  brothers,  and  ^  animosity  between  families, 
clans,  and  villages.  It  causes  ruin  of  many  families,  wasting 
their  means  on  the  pretext  of  creating  fortunes.     It  is  an  ob- 


2o8  The  Emergency  in  China 

stacle  to  all  sorts  of  enterprise  which  might  be  of  the  greatest 
advantage  to  the  people.     ... 

It  represents  the_  highest  level  to  which  mental  culture  has 
been  able  to  rise  in  China,  within  the  bonds  of  a  classical 
orthodoxy,  precluding  all  science  of  another  order.  The  only 
power  that  can  explode  it  is  sound  science,  based  on  an  ex- 
perimental and  mathematical  investigation  of  the  laws  of 
nature.  But  such  science  is  only  just  born  in  China.  Should 
there  come  a  time  when  it  is  seriously  cultivated  there,  then, 
no  doubt,  a  complete  revolution  in  its  religion,  philosophy, 
ethics,  literature,  political  institutions,  and  customs  will  take 
place:  a  process  by  which  China  must  be  either  thoroughly 
disorganized  and  ruined,  or  reborn  and  regenerated,     .     .     . 

Can  such  a  civilization,  so  strong,  so  tenacious,  so  deep- 
rooted^  be  sapped  without  resistance?  China  has  no  second 
system  ready  to  put  in  the  place  of  the  old  system.  The 
death  of  the  old  must,  accordingly,  mean  total  disorganization, 
anarchy,  destruction — the  fullest  realization,  in  short,  of  her 
own  holy  doctrine  that,  when  man  loses  the  Tao,  catastrophe 
and  ruin  are  inevitable. 

— J.  J.  M.  De  Groot,  Religion  in  China. 

Definite  Statements  Concerning  Jesus  Christ  by  Chinese 
Mullahs 

"Jesus  was  an  apostle  sent  by  God,  but  his  ministry  was 
inferior,  and  confined  to  certain  limits:  he  was  an  apostle 
limited  by  weakness." 

"Jesus  was  not  the  Son  of  God,  nor  did  he  die  on  the  cross. 
The  proof  of  this  we  have  in  the  Koran :  'They  slew  him  not, 
and  they  crucified  him  not;  they  had  only  his  likeness.'  Jesus 
foretold  the  coming  of  another;  he  was  not  the  one  indicated, 
but  his  predecessor :  our  prophet,  Mohammed,  was  the  one 
indicated,  and  there  is  no  doubt  that  the  one  indicated  is 
greater  than  he  who  indicates  him.  Thus  it  is  evident  that 
Mohammed  was  greater  than  Jesus — they  were  not  even  of 
equal  rank — and  whoever  thinks  the  reverse  is  an  infidel,  and 
gives  the  lie  to  the  revelations  of  God.  Both  Mohammed  and 
Jesus  were  given  miracles:  to  Jesus,  the  raising  of  the  dead; 
healing  sicknesses  beyond  the  power  of  a  physician;  knowl- 
edge of  the  unseen,  etc.;  but  it  was  by  the  help  of  the  seal 
(last)  of  the  prophets — who,  without  doubt,  was  our  Moham- 
med. At  the  day  of  judgment,  after  other  prophets  have  been 
asked  to  intercede,  and  have  each  definitely  refused  (Jesus 
being  among  the  number),  the  prophet  Mohammed  will  be 
asked,  and  will  consent  to  intercede,  and  his  intercession  will 
be  accepted.     When  I  grasp  all  these  proofs,  all  imagination 


Religious  Conditions  209 

that  Jesus  was  the  Son  of  God  is  put  far  from  me !    Jesus  was 
merely  a  preacher  of  the  coming  of  Mohammed  and  his  re- 
ligion.   At  the  last  day,  he  will  return  to  this  world,  become  a 
Moslem,  and  enter  into  the  bond  of  marriage." 
— F.  Herbert  Rhodes,  Chinese  Recorder,  February,  1913. 

The  first  few  Mohammedan  services  which  I  attended  made 
a  deep  impression  upon  me.  They  are  so  simple  and  dignified ; 
the  mosques  are  so  clean  and  orderly  and  free  from  tinsel, 
that  the  contrast  with  the  Buddhist  and  Taoist  temples  and 
services  is  refreshing.  They  were  the  first  non-Christian  reli- 
gious services  I  had  ever  attended  that  commanded  my  respect 
and  stirred  within  me  the  spirit  of  prayer.  But  I  have  since 
come  to  know  that  not  one  in  ten  of  the  worshipers  under- 
stands what  is  being  said,  as  it  is  all  in  Arabic;  and  many  of 
my  pleasant  impressions  have  been  dissipated  since  I  knew 
that  the  worshipers  did  not  worship  God  with  their  whole 
mind  or  indeed  with  their  intellect  at  all.  In  only  one  service 
have  I  ever  heard  any  exposition  in  Chinese,  though  every- 
where they  have  assured  me  that  at  times  they  do  have  preach- 
ing in  the  vernacular. 

— W.  B.  Pettus,  Chinese  Recorder,  February,  1913. 

By  means  of  polygamy,  early  marriages  and  the  interde- 
pendence of  clans,  the  Chinese  people  struggle  to  fulfil  at  all 
costs  the  inexorable  demands  of  their  patriarchal  system; 
bringing  their  predestined  victims  of  hunger  and  disease  into 
a  world  that  has  no  room  for  them ;  breeding  up  to  a  food- 
limit  which,  amidst  toil  and  penury  incredible,  has  long  since 
reached  the  breaking  point.  A  nation  which  implicitly  be- 
lieves, and  unanimously  acts  on  the  belief,  that  a  man's  first 
duty  in  life  is  to  provide  as  many  male  heirs  as  possible  for 
the  comfort  of  himself  and  his  ancestors,  inevitably  condemns 
vast  masses  of  its  people  to  the  lowest  depths  of  poverty, 
and  condemns  the  body  politic  to  regularly  recurring  cata- 
clysms.   .    .    . 

_  Even  supposing  that,  by  good  government,  the  conditions  of 
life  were  to  be  alleviated  for  the  masses,  that  by  economic 
reforms  and  applied  science  the  resources  of  the  country  might 
be  materially  increased,  it  is  clear  that,  for  a  people  which  rears 
four  generations  while  Europe  is  rearing  three,  with  whom 
the  absence  of  posterity  is  a  crime  and  concubinage  the  re- 
ward of  success,  any  relief  would  be  temporary — the  funda- 
mental problem  deferred,  not  solved. 

—J.  O.  P.  Bland,  Recent  Events  and  Present  Policies  in 
China, 


210  The  Emergency  in  China 

The  subjoined  mandate  appeared  on  September  20: 
The  ex-Resident  General  Huang  Hsing  has  in  a  telegram 
rightly  pointed  out  the  fact  that,  owing  to  th6  establishment 
of  the  republic  and  the  sudden  influx  of  new  ideas  and  ideals 
into  China,  many  thoughtless  and  frivolous  people  have  mis- 
construed  the  meaning  of  the  terms  republicanism,  liberty,  and 
equality.  As  a  result,  the  well-established  traditions  and  the 
fundamental  principles  of  China  have  not  been  well  observed. 
For  the  purpose  of  maintaining  our  standard  of  morality  and 
the  practise  of  good  ancient  traditions,  General  Huang  Hsing 
urges  that  the  eight  cardinal  virtues  of  China — filial  piety, 
brotherliness,  loyalty,  faithfulness,  politeness,  righteousness, 
honesty,  and  sense  of  shame — should  be  emphasized  and  be 
brought  to  the  people's  mind  Good  principles  and  morality 
are  the  same  all  the  world^  over.  The  change  of  a  govern- 
mental system  should  certainly  not  be  taken  as  a  warrant  to 
depart  from  the  well-established  ethical  principles  of  morality. 
Nowadays,  agitated  by  the  great  political  changes  made  in  our 
country,  many  seekers  of  foreign  _  ideas  who  have  failed  to 
grasp  the  real  spirit  of  Western  sciences  and  who  have  sirnply 
been  impressed  by  its  material  progress,  begin  to  depreciate 
the  great  moral  principles  of  our  nation  which  have  been 
handed  down  for  hundreds  of  generations.  I  am  well  con- 
vinced of  the  fact  that  no  nation  can  be  called  civilized  with- 
out making  the  eight  great  virtues  the  basis  of  its  government. 
I,  the  President,  firmly  maintain  that  the  great  danger  of  to- 
day is  not  in  the  material  weakness  of  our  nation,  but  in  the 
condition  of  the  human  heart.  If  every  person  has  his  heart 
turned  toward  good,  the  country  will  be  set  on  a  firm  founda- 
tion.   May  the  citizens  of  the  republic  heed  this  exhortation ! 

— China  Year  Book,  191 3. 

We  have  lately  seen  a  circular  issued  in  the  interests  of 
"The  Universal  Interrelation  of  Religions."  A  belief  in  the 
Sabbath  is  indicated  on  the  sheet,  and  it  is  stated  that,  "One 
principle  underlies  all  law,  and  the  myriad  virtues  have  a 
common  center."  Following  this,  come  quotations  from  the 
Confucian,  Taoist,  and  Buddhist  classics,  the  whole  ending 
with  the  Lord's  prayer.  The  circular  is  being  used  by  cer- 
tain persons  who  believe  that  identical  ideas  are  fundamental 
to  all  religions,  and  that  the  faiths  mentioned  are  not  antag- 
onistic, but  kindred  to  each  other. 

There  is  little  doubt  that  the  revival  of  these  Oriental  faiths 
is  due  to  their  contact  with  Christianity.  As  the  dead  Midian- 
ite  revived  when  he  was  thrown  into  the  tomb  and  his  body 
touched  the  bones  of  the  prophet  Elisha,  so  these  dead  and 


Religious  Conditions  211 

dying  faiths  have  been  revivified  by  the  quickening  influence  of 
Christianity.  Scholars  tell  us  that  in  the  first  century  of  our 
era  Buddhism  was  already  a  spent  force,  but  the  fructifying 
tide  of  the  religion  of  Jesus  flowed  over  its  sterile  fields  and 
caused  them  to  blossom  once  more.  Do  we  not  see  the  same 
phenomena  repeated  in  these  last  days?  _  Buddhism  readjusted 
itself  so  that  it  absorbed  the  Christianity  it  met  with  in  the 
first  century  A.  D.  Is  Christianity  virile  enough  to  absorb 
Buddhism  in  the  twentieth? 

— Editorial  in  the  Chinese  Recorder,  June,  1912. 

All  down  through  the  years  of  missionary  work  in  China, 
official  disapproval  has  been  the  root  from  which  general  sus- 
picion and  active  opposition  have  sprung.  When  the  emperor, 
the  viceroys,  the  magistrates  and  scholars  branded  the  Chris- 
tian doctrine  as  bad  and  inimical  to  the  state,  what  could  the 
people  do  but  try  to  drive  it  out  ?  Now,  with  Christians  hold- 
ing high  office  in  the  state  and  taking  a  full  share  in  local 
government,  and  with  the  president's  approval  of  the  doctrine 
itself,  church-members  will  no  longer  be  considered  a  separate 
class  or  as  denationalized  Chinese  who  have  placed  themselves 
under  foreign  protection.  The  gain  is  immense.  For  surely 
it  means  that  the  Christian  message  will  receive  a  better  hear- 
ing, the  Christian  Church  will  gain  a  new  standing,  and  the 
Christian  school  will  have  a  wider  influence. 

— Rev.  G.  H.  Bondfield,  Chinese  Recorder,  January,  1913. 

Another  sign  of  the  times  is  the  popular  recognition  of  the 
Christian  religion  as  one  of  the  religions  of  China.  During 
the  last  few  days  there  has  been  a  striking  example  of  this. 
The  Buddhists,  Taoists,  and  Confucianists — not  to  speak  of  a 
new  Universal  Religion — are  seeking  to  reorganize  themselves 
into  great  Chinese  Churches.  The  Buddhists  and  Taoists 
have  just  held  their  opening  ceremonies.  Delegates  were  spe- 
cially invited  from  each  section  of  the  community,  and,  among 
others,  the  Christian  churches  were  invited  to  send  repre- 
sentatives. The  significance  of  this  is  the  recognition  of 
Christianity  as  one  of  the  Chinese  national  religions  by  the 
members  of  the  other  religions.  One  Buddhist  priest  spoke  of 
the  way  in  which  Christianity  had  spread  and  become  a  world 
religion ;  and  also  of  how  it  was  engaged  in  good  works,  such 
as  teaching  and  healing,  and  that  in  this  it  was  an  example  to 
themselves.  This  popular  recognition  seems  to  clear  the  way 
for  mass  movements  of  the  people  toward  Christ,  and  for  the 
inclusion  of  all  classes. 

— W.  Macnaughton,  Chinese  Recorder,  January,  1913. 


THE  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 


CHAPTER   VII 

THE  INFLUENCE  OF  CHRISTIANITY 

And  he  showed  me  a  river  of  water  of  life,  bright 
as  crystal,  proceeding  out  of  the  throne  of  God  and 
of  the  Lamb,  in  the  midst  of  the  street  thereof,  and 
on  this  side  of  the  river  and  on  that  was  the  tree  of 
life,  bearing  twelve  manner  of  fruits,  yielding  its  fruit 
every  month;  and  the  leaves  of  the  tree  were  for  the 
healing  of  the  nations. 

— Revelation  xxii.  i,  2 

It  is  interesting  to  inquire  how  far  Christianity- 
has  been  a  factor  in  the  production  of  the  new- 
China  ? 

Causes  of  Awakening  of  China.  There  is  a  pecu- 
liar verse  in  the  Book  of  Revelation  which  clings 
to  the  memory — "the  earth  helped  the  woman." 
It  might  be  interpreted  as  meaning  that  in  God's 
providence  world  forces  are  often  used  for  the  ad- 
vancement of  the  interests  of  the  Church,  and  to 
help  in  the  extension  of  the  Kingdom.  Such  un- 
doubtedly has  been  the  case  in  China.  The  awak- 
ening of  China,  the  break-up  of  the  old  conserva- 
tism, and  the  throwing  of  everything  into  solution 
has  been  due  to  many  causes,  among  which  the  fol- 
lowing stand  out  in  bold  relief:    i.  The  fear  of  fur- 

215 


2i6  The  Emergency  in  China 

ther  foreign  aggression ;  2.  The  impact  of  the  West 
on  the  East;  3.  The  startling  example  of  progress 
in  Japan;  4.  The  better  knowledge  of  Westerners 
and  Western  civilization;  and,  5.  Foreign  com- 
merce. In  regard  to  the  last-mentioned,  Kipling 
somewhere  compares  the  plying  of  merchant  ves- 
sels between  the  Western  and  Eastern  hemispheres 
to  the  flying  shuttle  weaving  the  warp  and  the  woof 
together  into  a  world-wide  industrial  brotherhood. 
These  forces  Ixave  compelled  China  to  come  forth 
from  her  age-long  isolation  and  to  enter  into  the 
comity  of  nations.  Still,  the  analysis  of  the  causes 
producing  the  change  would  be  incomplete  if  we 
failed  to  recognize  that  the  Christian  religion  has 
been  one  of  the  main  factors. 

Statistics  Unsatisfactory.  Let  us  state  as  em- 
phatically as  we  can  that  the  attempt  to  measure 
the  results  of  Christian  missions  by  the  number  of 
converts  is  unsatisfactory  and  misleading.  We  do 
not  mean  that  statistics  are  not  a  criterion  of  prog- 
ress to  which  we  are  forced  to  resort,  but  that 
the  influences  of  Christianity  are  wider  and  more 
far-reaching  than  is  shown  by  the  actual  number 
of  accessions  to  the  Christian  Church.  As  Profes- 
sor E.  A.  Ross  says,  "Now,  the  truth  is,  that,  in 
the  very  nature  of  the  case,  by  far  the  larger  part 
of  their  accomplishment  can  never  be  claimed  by  the 
missionaries  as  their  own.  They  dig  the  well,  and 
toil  at  the  windlass,  but  the  waters  they  raise  do 
not  flow  in  an  open  conduit  to  the  fields  they 
quicken.     Most  of  them  disappear  in  the  ground, 


The  Influence  of  Christianity  217 

and  when  they  reappear  to  make  distant  wastes 
bloom  they  cannot  be  identified.  What  of  the 
young  men  leaving  the  mission  colleges  uncon- 
verted, yet  imbued  with  Christian  ideals?  What 
of  the  bracing  effect  on  the  government  schools  of 
competition  with  the  well-managed  and  efficient 
mission  schools?  What  of  the  government  schools 
for  girls,  which  would  never  have  been  provided  if 
the  missionaries  had  not  created  a  demand  for  fe- 
male education,  and  shown  how  to  teach  girls? 
What  of  the  native  philanthropies  which  have 
sprung  up  in  emulation  of  the  mission  care  for  the 
blind,  the  insane,  and  the  leper?  What  of  the  un- 
traceable influence  of  the  Western  books  of  in- 
spiration and  learning  which,  but  for  the  missionary 
translators,  would  not  yet  be  accessible  to  the  Chi- 
nese mind?  Among  Chinese  who  neither  know  nor 
care  for  the  'Jesus  religion,'  the  changes  of  attitude 
toward  opium-smoking,  foot-binding,  concubinage, 
slavery,  'squeeze,'  torture,  and  the  subjection  of 
women,  betray  currents  of  opinions  set  in  motion 
largely  by  the  labors  of  missionaries."^ 

Mission  Period.  Let  us  look  at  this  a  little  more 
in  detail.  Modern  Christian  missions  in  China  date 
back  about  three  centuries  to  the  coming  of  the 
Jesuit  missionaries  of  the  Roman  Catholic  Church, 
and  started  with  the  effort  of  Francis  Xavier  to 
break  open  the  rock  that  seemed  so  adamantine. 
Protestant  missions  began  about  a  hundred  years 
ago  with  the  arrival  of  Robert  Morrison,  in  1807. 
*E.  A.  Ross,  The  Changing  Chinese,  245. 


2i8  The  Emergency  in  China 

Thus  then  there  have  been  altogether  three  cen- 
turies of  influence.  During  that  period  of  time  the 
tree  has  been  bearing  leaves  for  the  healing  of  the 
nation. 

Intellectual  Enlightenment.  In  the  first  place, 
Christianity  has  brought  intellectual  enlightenment. 
Everywhere  the  missionary  has  gone  he  has 
founded  schools.  He  has  struggled  to  exorcize  the 
demon  of  superstition  and  fear  from  the  minds  of 
the  people,  and  replace  them  by  the  spirit  of  light 
and  truth.  As  is  well  known,  the  early  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries  did  much  in  the  translation 
of  books  of  science  and  mathematics,  and  for  a  time 
won  the  favor  of  the  court  by  their  superior  intel- 
lectual attainments.  The  educational  activity  of 
Roman  Catholic  missionaries  has  never  been  as 
wide  and  free  as  that  of  Protestant  Christianity, 
and  the  new  education  found  its  way  into  China 
through  the  work  of  Protestant  missionaries.  No 
people  on  the  face  of  the  earth  believe  in  the  bless- 
ings of  education  so  much  as  do  those  of  Protestant 
North  America,  and  hence  it  is  natural  to  find 
American  missionaries  playing  by  far  the  larger 
part  in  the  development  of  schools  and  colleges. 

Some  Educational  Results.  This  work  of  educa- 
tion has  gradually  developed  until  in  1910  there 
were  3,708  primary  schools,  and  553  academies,  col- 
leges, industrial,  medical,  nurses'  and  normal 
schools.^  How  can  we  estimate  the  enormous 
stream  of  influence  flowing  from  these  institutions? 
^  China  Mission  Year  Book,  1912,  p.  Ixxxvi. 


ST.  JOHN'S  UNIVERSITY,  SHANGHAI 
MARTIN  HALL,  CANTON  CHRISTIAN  COLLEGE 


Ip  218] 


The  Influence  of  Christianity  219 

In  a  former  chapter,  we  spoke  of  the  marvelous  re- 
suits  of  the  life-work  of  one  man,  Dr.  Yung  Wing, 
in  the  introduction  of  enlightenment  into  China 
through  the  first  educational  mission  to  the  United 
States.^  He  himself  was  a  product  of  a  mission 
school.  We  might  fill  a  chapter  with  accounts  of 
what  the  graduates  of  these  schools  have  accom- 
plished for  their  country.  One  of  the  great  leaders 
of  the  Christian  Church,  the  late  Rev.  Y.  K. 
Yen,  M.  A.,  helped  to  lay  the  foundations  of  St. 
John's  University,  Shanghai,  and  was  a  noble  advo- 
cate for  the  suppression  of  opium  in  China,  advanc- 
ing the  cause  of  the  Anti-opium  Society  at  public 
meetings  throughout  Great  Britain.  He  came  as  a 
little  heathen  boy  to  a  mission  school,  and  there  re- 
ceived the  divine  influences  which  molded  his  life 
and  character. 

Missionary  Educational  Pioneering.  We  cannot 
paint  in  too  dark  colors  China's  ignorance  before 
the  advent  of  the  missionary.  There  was  abso- 
lutely no  accurate  knowledge  of  the  geography  of 
the  world,  the  history  of  other  nations,  and  the 
causes  of  physical  phenomena.  Throughout  the 
darkness  of  the  land,  there  was  no  light  save  that 
which  radiated  from  the  mission  school.  It  is  very 
different  now,  but  we  should  never  forget  how 
the  enlightenment  began.  So  it  was  also  with  the 
books  which  were  translated  into  Chinese.  It  was 
through  the  work  of  missionaries  that  the  first 
books  on  astronomy,  chemistry,  physics,  geology, 
^  See  pages  20,  21. 


220  The  Emergency  in  China 

history,  and  other  sciences  were  given  fo  the  Chi- 
nese. Those  who  scoff  at  missions  little  realize 
what  a  tremendous  influence  for  intellectual  en- 
lightenment  they  have  exerted. 

Reform  Movement.  We  believe  it  would  be  no 
exaggeration  to  say  that  the  reform  movement  in 
China  began  first  with  the  missionaries.  The  Chris- 
tian Literature  Society,  formerly  known  as  the  So- 
ciety for  the  Diffusion  of  Christian  and  General 
Knowledge,  through  the  publication  of  books  and 
magazines  extended  new  knowledge  and  new  ideas 
throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land. 
Many  of  the  reformers  of  1898  looked  up  to  Dr. 
Timothy  Richard,  the  General  Secretary  of  the  So- 
ciety, as  their  master  and  teacher,  and  realized  that 
he  had  opened  their  minds  to  the  truth. 

Medical  Work.  Again  Christianity  has  borne  one 
of  the  leaves  for  the  healing  of  the  nation  through 
its  philanthropic  work.  Wherever  the  missionaries 
have  gone,  there  have  sprung  up  the  dispensary  and 
the  hospital.  This  was  inevitable.  They  would 
not  have  been  true  followers  of  the  Great  Physician 
had  they  been  callous  or  indifferent  to  the  suffer- 
ings of  Chinese  humanity — sufferings  largely  caused 
by  crass  ignorance  in  regard  to  the  causes  of  dis- 
eases and  their  means  of  remedy.  There  were  in 
1910  in  China  210  hospitals  and  200  dispensaries, 
and  50,146  in-patients  and  1,272,656  out-patients 
were  treated.^ 

Beneficent  Altruism.  No  greater  evidence  could 
^  China  Mission  Year  Book,  1912,  p.  Ixxxvi. 


The  Influence  of  Christianity  221 

have  been  given  to  the  Chinese  of  the  spirit  of 
altruism  characterizing  the  Christian  religion  than 
the  work  of  medical  missions.  It  has  been  the 
means  of  converting  many  to  Christ,  but  in  addi- 
tion to  that,  it  has  brought  a  new  conception  of 
love  of  mankind.  Confucianism  has  developed  no 
hospitals.  Its  negative  statement  of  the  golden  rule 
has  not  given  birth  to  an  active  crusade  to  relieve 
the  miseries  of  mankind.  Tried  by  this  standard 
it  is  sadly  wanting.  A  rational  science  of  medicine 
was  brought  to  China  by  the  missionary,  and  in 
addition  to  all  his  labors  in  the  hospital  he  has 
found  time  to  instruct  medical  students  and  trans- 
late books  on  medicine  into  Chinese.  In  nothing 
perhaps  is  a  nation  more  bigoted  than  in  its  be- 
lief in  its  own  ancient  system  of  healing.  So  it 
has  been  in  China.  In  the  face  of  prejudice  and 
superstition  and  overwhelming  odds,  the  medical 
missionary  has  patiently  labored  on  until  at  last 
he  begins  to  see  results  far  beyond  his  expectations 
— incredulity  replaced  by  faith,  and  the  gradual 
introduction  of  saner  methods  of  dealing  with  dis- 
ease. In  the  dawn  of  the  new  day,  perhaps  some 
will  overlook  the  real  pioneers  of  the  movement. 
Tribute  to  Dr.  Jackson.  In  days  gone  by,  during 
antiforeign  agitations,  the  hospital  has  sometimes 
been  a  cause  of  riots.  Slanders  circulated  as  to  ne- 
farious practises  of  doctors  and  surgeons  have  in- 
flamed the  minds  of  the  ignorant  masses  and  ex- 
cited them  to  a  wild  frenzy.  In  striking  contrast 
to  such  mad  outbreaks,  leading  to  incendiarism  and 


222  The  Emergency  in  China 

massacre  is  the  changed  attitude  of  officials  and 
people.  When  Dr.  Jackson  of  the  Presbyterian 
mission  laid  down  his  life  in  Manchuria  in  his  noble 
attempt  to  stem  the  ravages  of  the  plague,  his  self- 
sacrificing  spirit  stirred  the  hearts  of  the  Chinese 
and  won  their  admiration.  At  the  memorial  service, 
the  viceroy  of  Manchuria  used  the  following  re- 
markable words :  ''The  Chinese  government  has 
lost  a  man  who  gave  his  life  in  his  desire  to  help 
them.  O  spirit  of  Dr.  Jackson,  we  pray  you  to  in- 
tercede for  the  twenty  million  people  of  Manchuria, 
and  ask  the  Lord  of  Heaven  to  take  away  this  pes- 
tilence, so  that  we  may  once  more  lay  our  heads 
in  peace  upon  our  pillows.  In  life  you  were  brave, 
now  you  are  an  exalted  spirit.  Noble  spirit,  who 
sacrificed  your  life  for  us,  help  us  still,  and  look 
down  in  kindness  upon  us  all." 

Philanthropic  Work.  This  altruistic  side  of 
Christian  missions  has  not  been  confined  to  the 
establishment  of  dispensaries  and  hospitals.  In  ad- 
dition we  find  14  orphanages,  16  leper  asylums,  3 
homes  for  untainted  children  of  lepers,  11  institu- 
tions for  the  blind  and  for  deaf  mutes,  5  rescue 
homes  for  fallen  women,  100  opium  refuges,  2  in- 
dustrial homes,  one  asylum  for  the  insane,  one 
school  for  beggar  boys,  and  a  refuge  for  slave  girls. 
It  is  as  if  the  Christian  missionary  would  place  his 
healing  hand  on  all  the  great  sore  spots  of  the  so- 
cial life  of  China. 

Orpfianages.  Much  has  been  written  about  fe- 
male infanticide  in  China  and  we  find  no  less  an 


Ltfc  of  Dr.  yackso>i  of  Afanchuria,  courtesy  of  Hodder  atid  Stoughton 

DR.  ARTHUR  JACKSON 
"  Noble  spirit,  you  sacrificed  your  life  for  us ' 


[p  222] 


The  Influence  of  Christianity  223 

authority  than  Professor  Giles  stating  that  the 
charge  of  practising  female  infanticide  brought 
against  the  Chinese  is  "an  atrocious  libel."  We 
would  be  glad  if  we  could  endorse  his  words,  but 
the  evidence  of  the  neglect  of  female  infants  on  the 
part  of  the  poor  peasants  is  altogether  too  strong. 
Even  if  no  live  children  were  ever  thrown  into  the 
baby  towers,  yet  we  have  the  fact  confronting  us 
that  among  the  Chinese,  one  of  the  forms  charity 
has  taken  is  the  establishment  of  foundling  asylums 
for  female  infants.  The  Chinese  lady  who  estab- 
lished the  orphanage  conducted  by  the  Protestant 
Episcopal  mission  in  Shanghai  had  the  following 
experience.  An  old  countrywoman  brought  in  a 
baby  girl  given  to  her  for  the  purpose  of  being 
drowned.  She  was  rewarded  for  her  trouble  with 
a  gift  of  twenty  cents  Mexican.  In  expressing  her 
delight  and  thanks  she  said:  "Had  I  known  you 
were  willing  to  pay  for  babies,  I  could  have  brought 
you  any  number  instead  of  drowning  them."  We 
must  bear  in  mind  that  the  extreme  poverty  of  the 
country  people  and  the  stern  struggle  for  existence 
have  been  responsible  for  the  practise,  and  not  any 
abnormal  cruelty  on  the  part  of  the  parents. 

Leper  Homes.  Nothing  was  ever  done  for  lepers 
iintil  the  advent  of  the  Christian  missionary.  The 
principle  of  segregation  was  unknown,  and  the  man 
tainted  with  disease  married  and  lived  with  his 
family,  and  became  a  menace  to  all  with  whom  he 
came  into  close  contact. 

Blind  Asylums.    It  was  also  thus  with  the  blind. 


224  The  Emergency  in  China 

It  never  occurred  to  the  Chinese  that  they  could 
be  educated  and  made  useful  citizens,  earning  their 
own  living.  The  only  calling  for  which  they  were 
deemed  fit  was  that  of  the  fortune-teller.  Mr.  Mur- 
ray in  his  remarkable  work  in  Peking  first  demon- 
strated the  possibility  of  teaching  the  blind  to  read 
by  means  of  the  braille  system  and  his  institution 
has  become  a  model  followed  by  the  Chinese. 

Care  for  Deaf  and  Dumb.  So  it  has  been  with  the 
deaf  and  dumb.  The  first  Protestant  missionary  to 
do  anything  for  this  neglected  class  was  Mrs.  Mills 
yin  Chefoo.  She  taught  the  Chinese  how  knowledge 
of  the  outside  world  and  of  spiritual  truth  may  be 
xonveyed  to  the  minds  of  those  who  are  deaf  and 
how  the  speechless  can  convey  their  thoughts  to 
one  another. 

Care  for  Insane.  China  is  a  country  where  there 
is  a  strong  belief  in  demoniacal  possession,  and  all 
forms  of  insanity  are  attributed  to  the  influence  of 
evil  spirits.  There  have  never  been  any  asylums  for 
the  insane.  Whenever  the  demented  are  violent, 
they  are  chained,  up  in  the  courtyard  of  the  house, 
i6cposed  to  the  elements  day  and  night,  and  fed 
by  morsels  of  food  thrown  to  them  as  if  they  were 
dogs.  Nothing  has  astounded  the  Chinese  more 
than  the  cures  wrought  through  kindness  and  ra- 
tional methods  on  these  poor  people.  It  has  given 
rise  to  the  belief  that  the  Christian  Church  still 
possesses  the  power  of  exorcising  demons. 

Evangelization.  The  third  main  method  by 
which   the   Christian   Church   has  exerted  a  great 


The  Influence  of  Christianity  225 

influence  is  that  of  evangelization.  Some  who  have 
a  weak  faith  in  missions  commend  the  educational 
and  medical  work,  but  speak  disparagingly  of  the 
evangelistic.  In  many  ways  the  latter  must  appear 
the  more  discouraging.  At  times  it  looks  as  if  all 
the  seed  fell  by  the  roadside.  We  know,  however, 
that  such  has  not  been  the  case,  and  that  the  direct 
preaching  of  the  Word  in  street  chapel  and  market- 
place has  been  the  means  of  winning  many  to 
Christ.  Even  when  immediate  results  are  not 
forthcoming,  yet  something  is  accomplished  in  pre- 
paring the  way  for  a  future  reception  of  the  gospel. 
Over  and  over  again  the  Christian  convert  wasv 
first  aroused  by  what  he  heard  from  some  public 
preaching  as  he  stood  among  the  crowd. 

A  Preparation  for  Democracy.  What  we  wish 
to  point  out  here,  however,  is  the  fact  that  this 
constant  preaching  of  the  gospel  has  been  one  of 
the  great  forces  by  which  new  and  revoluli^onary 
ideas  have  been  spread  among  the  Chinese,  The 
preacher  of  the  gospel  proclaims  everywhere  those 
great  truths  which  lie  at  the  foundation  of  demo- 
cratic principles,  as  for  instance,  the  intrinsic  value 
of  each  individual  soul  in  the  eyes  of  God  and  its 
latent  power  of  sonship  to  the  Highest ;  the  brother- 
hood of  man;  and  the  Fatherhood  of  God.  Then, 
in  addition,  he  awakens  in  the  minds  of  his  hearers 
new  conceptions  of  righteousness  and  sin,  and  puts 
before  them  higher  moral  ideals  than  any  they 
have  ever  apprehended.  Furthermore,  he  implants 
in  their  hearts  new  hope  in  regard  to  salvation  and 


226  The  Emergency  in  China 

personal  immortality.  Jesus  Christ  recognized  the 
power  of  ideas,  and  hence  his  reiterated  appeal, 
"He  that  hath  ears  to  hear,  let  him  hear."  This 
constantly  repeated  preaching  of  the  gospel  is  un- 
doubtedly one  of  the  foremost  causes  of  China's 
awakening. 

This  Agency  Calls  Still  for  Missionaries.  The 
statement  is  often  made  that  China  must  be  evan- 
gelized by  the  Chinese.  The  difficulties  of  the  ac- 
quirement of  the  language,  of  understanding  the 
mental  idiosyncrasies  of  the  Chinese  people,  and 
of  presenting  the  truth  in  the  way  most  easily  com- 
prehensible to  them  are  undoubtedly  very  great. 
The  Chinese  evangelist  has  a  great  advantage  over 
his  foreign  coworkers  in  these  respects.  Hence 
the  emphasis  is  now  placed  on  the  importance  of 
the  training  of  the  native  ministry  and  of  educating 
evangelists.  It  is  said  with  a  good  deal  of  truth 
that  the  missionary  may  spend  his  energy  and  abil- 
ity to  greater  profit  in  this  way  than  by  taking  part 
in  the  direct  work  of  evangelization.  Yet  on  the 
other  hand,  the  supply  of  Chinese  clergy  and  evan- 
gelists is  altogether  too  small.  Everywhere  we 
hear  the  same  complaint.  Those  who  apply  to  take 
up  this  work  and  who  feel  the  call  to  it  are  far 
too  few.  The  only  remedy  as  it  appears  to  us  is 
the  wider  evangelization  of  the  country.  We  still 
need  men  who  will  give  up  their  ^hole  time  to 
the  work  of  preaching  in  cooperation  with  native 
preachers,  so  that  the  multitudes  may  be  reached. 
The  supply  of  the  native  ministry  and  the  work 


The  Influence  of  Christianity  227 

of  evangelization  are  indissolubly  related  to  one 
another.  Only  by  the  earnest  prosecution  of  the 
latter  can  we  expect  to  get  the  material  out  of 
which  will  come  the  native  ministry  and  evangel- 
ists. 

Development  of  Christian  Character.  By  another 
great  branch  of  his  work,  the  Christian  missionary 
has  been  influencing  the  social  life  of  China,  and 
that  is  by  the  development  of  Christian  character 
in  the  converts  who  have  been  brought  into  the 
Church.  The  little  groups  of  Christians  here  and 
there  formed  into  congregations  are  bound  together 
for  a  threefold  purpose, — to  offer  worship  to  God, 
to  increase  their  own  spiritual  life,  and  to  be  active 
agents  in  the  dissemination  of  light  and  truth.  In 
the  Roman  Empire,  in  the  early  days  of  Christian- 
ity, the  followers  of  Christ  seemed  so  sharply  dis- 
tinguished from  the  people  among  whom  they  lived 
that  they  were  often  referred  to  as  a  third  people. 
So  it  is  in  China;  the  Christians  are  differentiated 
from  the  non-Christians.  Many  of  them  lead  lives 
which  are  the  admiration  and  wonder  of  those  who 
do  not  understand  the  transforming  power  of  the 
gospel  of  Christ.  Their  family  life  is  purer  and 
more  harmonious  than  that  of  non-Christians. 
They  exhibit  a  greater  regard  for  truth  and  hon- 
esty. They  treat  their  wives  and  daughters  bet- 
ter. They  display  more  active  compassion  and 
sympathy.  We  do  not  mean  that  all  who  embrace 
the  Christian  faith  live  up  to  their  profession,  but 
making  all  necessary  deductions  for  rice-Christians 


228  The  Emergency  in  China 

and  those  who  have  been  attracted  by  unworthy 
motives,  it  still  remains  true  that  the  Christian 
Church  as  a  whole  reveals  to  the  eyes  of  the  Chi- 
nese a  higher  life  than  that  produced  by  their  own 
religions.  When  the  Church  passed  through  a  pe- 
riod of  trial  during  the  Boxer  outbreak,  many  stood 
the  test  as  well  as  the  Christians  in  the  Roman 
Empire  in  the  days  of  persecution.  Thousands  of 
Christian  converts  perished,  although  they  could 
have  saved  their  lives  by  trampling  on  a  piece  of 
paper  bearing  the  characters  for  the  name  of 
"Jesus"  or  by  sacrificing  to  idols. 

Striking  Change  in  Converts.  "The  break  of  the 
genuine  convert  with  his  past  is  far  more  abrupt 
than  anything  with  which  we  are  familiar.  He 
turns  his  back  on  opium,  gambling,  and  unchastity, 
— the  besetting  sins  of  his  fellows.  He  abandons 
cheating,  lying,  backbiting,  quarreling,  and  filthy 
language,  which  are  all  too  rife  among  the  undisci- 
plined common  people.  He  shuns  litigation,  often 
the  ruin  of  the  villages.  By  withdrawal  from  the 
festivals  in  the  ancestral  hall  and  from  the  rites 
at  the  graves  of  his  ancestors,  he  sunders  himself 
from  his  clan  and  incurs  persecution.  Thus  the 
converts  become  separatists,  with  the  merits  and 
defects  of  separatists.  Cut  off  from  the  world,  and 
thrown  with  one  another,  they  form  a  group  apart, 
a  body  of  Puritans  that  will  one  day  be  a  precious 
nucleus  of  moral  regeneration  for  China. "^ 

New  Spirit  of  Truthfulness.  A  striking  instance 
^  E.  A.  Ross,  The  Changing  Chinese,  235. 


The  Influence  of  Christianity  229 

of  the  Christian's  new  regard  for  truth  came  within 
the  writer's  experience  a  short  time  ago.  A  young 
man  educated  at  a  Christian  college  by  pre- 
tending to  be  a  Christian  availed  himself  of 
the  privilege  of  paying  reduced  fees  on  the 
ground  that  he  was  in  needy  circumstances.  He 
succeeded  in  passing  the  examination  held  at  Pe- 
king for  selecting  students  to  study  abroad  and 
was  sent  to  the  United  States.  There  he  became  a 
Christian,  and  immediately  afterwards  wrote  a  let- 
ter informing  the  authorities  of  the  college  in  China 
of  the  deceit  he  had  practised,  and  promising  to 
rnake  amends  for  his  sin  as  far  as  possible  by  re- 
funding all  the  money  of  which  he  had  defrauded 
the  college.  The  repayment  began  at  once  and 
continued  until  the  debt  was  wiped  out. 

New  Regard  for  Women.  We  have  said  enough 
about  the  Oriental  attitude  toward  woman.  The 
social  customs  of  China  show  the  position  of  in- 
feriority occupied  by  the  weaker  sex.  Christianity 
brings  a  gospel  which  proclaims  that  there  is 
neither  Greek  nor  Jew,  bond  nor  free,  male  nor  fe- 
male, but  all  are  one  in  Christ  Jesus.  It  elevates 
womanhood  by  the  beautiful  story  of  the  Virgin 
Mother,  and  by  the  accounts  in  the  gospels  of  the 
Master's  treatment  of  women.  We  never  read  that 
Confucius  addressed  a  single  word  to  a  woman. 
In  his  teaching  he  is  entirely  silent  in  regard  to 
them.  In  Buddhism  a  woman's  chance  of  salvation 
lies  in  the  possibility  of  her  coming  back  to  the 
world  as  a  man  during  her  transmigrations. 


230  The  Emergency  in  China 

Summary  of  Results  Achieved.  To  sum  up  again 
what  Christianity  has  done  for  women  in  China, 
we  may  say,  it  has  opposed  the  casting  away  of  fe- 
male infants,  it  has  set  its  face  against  foot-bind- 
ing, it  has  made  parents  see  that  it  was  their  duty 
to  educate  their  daughters,  it  has  discountenanced 
infant  betrothals  and  forced  marriages,  it  has  ad- 
mitted women  to  the  same  Church  privileges  as 
men,  it  has  proclaimed  that  the  same  standard  of 
purity  is  binding  on  men  as  on  women,  it  has  en- 
joined monogamy  and  given  woman  her  rightful 
place  in  the  family.  It  has  been  the  greatest  force 
for  the  elevation  of  woman  and  was  the  active 
leaven  preparing  the  minds  of  the  Chinese  for  the 
great  changes  which  have  recently  been  adopted. 

Bible  and  Tract  Societies.  Our  account  of  the 
stream  of  influence  flowing  from  Christian  mis- 
sions would  be  incomplete  if  we  failed  to  mention 
the  work  of  Bible  and  Tract  Societies.  The  three 
Bible  Societies,  the  British  and  Foreign,  the  Ameri- 
can, and  the  National  Bible  Society  of  Scotland, 
have  done  a  marvelous  work  in  issuing  and  circulat- 
ing the  Bible,  New  Testaments,  and  Portions  of 
the  Scriptures  in  the  various  dialects  of  the  Chi- 
nese language.  The  total  issue  of  the  three  So- 
cieties up  to  and  including  1909  was  as  follows: 


Bibles  461,826 

Testaments    2,652,647 

Portions    40,682,306 

Grand  Total   43,796,779 


The  Influence  of  Christianity  231 

The  price  at  which  the  Scriptures  are  sold  is,  of 
course,  as  low  as  possible,  but  the  fact  that  year 
after  year  there  is  a  steady  demand  goes  to  show 
that  there  is  a  desire  felt  by  the  Chinese  to  under- 
stand something  about  the  Christian  religion  and 
its  sacred  Book.  What  is  at  first  idle  curiosity 
often  leads  to  further  search  for  the  truth  and  has 
been  the  means  of  bringing  many  into  the  Chris- 
tian Church.  This  wide-spread  distribution  of  the 
Scriptures  has  as  one  of  its  results  the  breaking 
down  of  barriers  between  East  and  West.  The 
point  of  view  of  Western  civilization  cannot  be 
really  understood  apart  from  the  religion  to  which 
it  owes  its  highest  ideals,  and  to  understand  this 
religion  there  must  be  a  knowledge  of  its  sacred 
Book. 

Range  of  Tract  Work.  There  are  to-day  nine 
Tract  Societies  at  work  in  China,  and  all  are  doing 
a  most  needed  work.  The  circulation  of  the  Bible 
without  tracts  explaining  it  would  be  a  great  dis- 
advantage. We  must  recognize  the  fact  that  the 
New  Testament  was  not  intended  primarily  for 
the  heathen  but  for  the  members  of  the  Christian 
Church.  There  is  much  in  it  that  must  be  incom- 
prehensible to  one  who  has  received  no  Christian 
instruction.  Through  these  tracts  simple  truths 
are  presented  in  such  a  way  that  they  can  be  as- 
similated by  the  Oriental  mind.  The  number  of 
copies  circulated  in  a  year  by  the  nine  Tract  So- 
cieties with  their  headquarters  at  Shanghai,  Han- 
kow, Chungking,  Amoy,  Hongkong,  Peking,  Can- 


232  The  Emergency  in  China 

ton,  Fbochow,  and  Mukden,  amounts  to  the  large 
figure  of  7,677,896. 

Tracts  Herald  New  Movements.  It  needs  but 
little  imagination  to  perceive  the  value  of  this  mis- 
sionary agency.  A  brief  glance  at  the  pages  of  his- 
tory shows  that  a  new  literature  always  arises  as 
an  invariable  concomitant  of  a  new  political  or  so- 
cial movement.  Along  with  the  extended  treatises 
which  it  calls  forth,  there  are  also  the  brief,  con- 
densed, and  concise  tracts,  for  abstract  principles 
have  not  so  great  a  power  to  influence  men's  minds 
as  the  direct  and  practical  application  of  these  prin- 
ciples to  the  circumstances  of  the  times.  In  the 
days  of  Lollardy  the  tracts  of  Wyclif  moved  and 
stirred  men's  minds.  Cobden  and  Bright  carried 
on  their  agitation  for  the  repeal  of  the  Corn  Laws 
by  the  same  method.  In  the  days  of  the  French 
revolution  the  stream  of  tracts  issued  daily  was 
so  large  that  it  was  impossible  for  the  press  to  pub- 
lish them  rapidly  enough.  The  Chinese  have  used 
the  same  method,  and  the  wonderful  bringing  about 
of  the  revolution  was  helped  on  by  the  circulation 
of  tracts  and  pamphlets  advocating  reform,  criti- 
cizing the  old  government,  and  creating  new  pub- 
lic opinion^  So  this  powerful  method  is  being  em- 
ployed on  behalf  of  Christianity  in  China  by  the 
missionaries.  The  human  voice  cannot  reach  all 
the  corners  of  the  vast  country,  but  where  the  mis- 
sionary cannot  go,  there  the  tract  has  exerted  an 
influence  and  prepared  men's  minds  for  the  further 
reception  of  the  truth. 


METHODIST  PUBLISHING  HOUSE,  SHANGHAI 

SHANGHAI  MISSION  PRESS,  SHANGHAI  fp  232] 


The  Influence  of  Christianity  233 

*^ 

Criticism  of  Missions.  We  will  now  turn  for  a 
moment  to  some  of  the  criticisms  which  have  been 
made  of  Christian  missions.  We  may  divide  them 
into  three  classes :  Those  of  foreign  residents  in 
the  East,  those  of  the  Chinese  officials,  and  those 
of  the  rationalist. 

I.  By  Foreign  Residents  in  the  East.  One  of 
the  greatest  surprises  of  the  young  missionary  is 
the  somewhat  contemptuous  and  scornful  treatment 
he  is  apt  to  meet  with  on  his  journey  to  China. 
Perhaps  in  the  homeland  he  has  been  regarded  as 
something  of  a  hero  because  he  has  dedicated  him- 
self to  the  career  of  a  foreign  missionary.  If  so, 
the  sudden  fall  from  the  height'  is  felt  all  the  more. 
Many  of  the  officers  of  the  ship  on  which  he  sails 
and  some  of  his  fellow  passengers  who  may  be 
returning  to  their  homes  or  business  in  the  East, 
look  upon  him  as  a  deluded  enthusiast  or  fanatic. 
In  conversation,  he  will  learn  that  missionary  work 
is  greatly  overrated,  and  that  the  missionaries  have 
not  really  accomplished  anything.  He  is  told  that 
he  is  going  on  a  fool's  errand.  He  hears  much 
about  the  easy  lives  missionaries  lead  and  what  a 
"soft  thing"  they  have  of  it.  The  converts  are 
referred  to  as  rice-Christians  and  the  whole  enter- 
prise is  disparaged.  His  informants  speak  so  em- 
phatically and  dogmatically  that  perhaps  misgiv- 
ings arise  in  his  mind,  and  he  wonders  if  he  has 
been  deceived.  This  has  been  the  experience  of 
many.  Men  who  come  out  on  a  visit  to  the  East 
hear  the  same  stories,  and  when  they  arrive  at  the 


234  The  Emergency  in  China 

treaty  ports  missions  are  referred  to  in  so  slighting 
a  way  that  they  often  return  home  without  having 
taken  the  trouble  of  visiting  any  of  the  institutions 
within  easy  reach. 

Causes  of  Disparagement.  What  is  the  cause  of 
the  disparagement  and  criticism?  Is  it  baseless 
slander  or  does  it  contain  some  grains  of  truth? 
The  believer  in  missions  naturally  resents  the  mis- 
statements and  it  is  hard  for  him  to  review  the  sit- 
uation calmly. 

Assumptions  and  Lack  of  Tact.  Prejudice 
against  missions  arises  sometimes  from  the  some- 
what narrow  and  puritanical  type  of  character  dis- 
played by  one  type  of  missionary.  When  a  mis- 
sionary tries  to  turn  a  steamer  into  a  camp-meeting, 
it  becomes  somewhat  annoying  to  his  fellow  trav- 
elers. If  he  wears  an  air  of  'T  am  holier  than  thou," 
of  course  it  is  resented.  If  he  refuses,  because  he 
is  not  of  the  world  to  be  in  the  world,  he  is  looked 
upon  as  a  Pharisee.  In  all  fairness,  I  think  we  may 
confess  that  the  missionary  has  not  been  entirely 
blameless  and  that  some  of  the  trouble  is  due  to 
his  lack  of  tact,  and  to  his  uncharitable  attitude  to- 
ward those  whom  he  regards  as  worldlings. 

Difference  of  Ideals.  But  making  allowance  for 
want  of  culture  and  education  and  tact  on  the  part 
of  some  missionaries,  the  cause  of  their  unpopu- 
larity is  after  all  the  lack  of  sympathy  felt  by  many 
of  the  residents  of  the  East  for  their  aims  and 
ideals.  Some  resent  the  outspoken  hostility  of  the 
missionary  to  the  opium  traffic.     Others  selfishly 


The  Influence  of  Christianity  235 

consider  that  by  the  enlightenment  of  the  Chinese, 
the  missionary  is  taking  the  bread  out  of  the 
mouths  of  the  foreign  merchants.  Still  others  find 
the  purer  lives  led  by  missionaries  a  standing  re- 
proach to  their  own.  The  moral  standard  of  life 
in  the  East  is  lower  than  that  in  a  Christian  coun- 
try, hence  Kipling  says  that  there  .are  no  ten  com- 
mandments east  of  Suez,  "The  sensualist,  whose 
ruling  passions  are  high  living,  drinking,  gaming, 
and  debauchery  hates  the  missionary  because  his 
very  presence  is  a  reproof  to  him."  It  is  the  in- 
compatibility between  the  idealist  and  the  world- 
ling.i 

2.  Official  Criticism.  We  need  not  dwell  long  on 
official  criticism.  There  is  a  well-known  saying 
attributed  to  the  late  Li  Hung-chang,  classing 
opium  and  missionaries  together  as  the  two  great 
curses  of  China.  It  was  probably  uttered  as  a  jest, 
but  the  animus  of  it  lay  in  the  fact  that  China  re- 
sented bitterly  the  interference  on  the  part  of  mis- 
sionaries in  matters  connected  with  the  govern- 
ment, and  grieved  over  the  indemnities  she  had 
been  forced  to  pay  on  account  of  the  attacks  made 
on  missionaries  and  the  destruction  of  their  prop- 
erty by  infuriated  mobs. 

Personal  Indemnity  Liable  to  Abuse.  The  in- 
terference on  behalf  of  converts  in  the  native  courts, 
however  excusable  it  may  have  appeared  for  the 

*  In  making  the  above  statements  we  recognize  the  fact  tHat 
the  best  element  in  the  Eastern  foreign  communities  strongly 
sympathizes  with  the  work  missionaries  are  doing. 


'236  The  Emergency  in  China 

sake  of  obtaining  justice  for  them,  as  we  have  al- 
ready said,  was  unwise  and  unwarranted  and  nat- 
urally led  to  hard  feeling  on  the  part  of  the  official 
class.  It  was  a  short-sighted  policy,  and  has  at- 
tracted to  the  Church  many  whose  only  reason  for 
embracing  Christianity  was  the  desire  to  get  pro- 
tection from  the  native  authorities  or  to  seek  help 
in  lawsuits. 

Voice  of  Missionaries  against  It.  The  great  ma- 
jority of  missionaries  has  always  been  opposed  to 
this  method  of  procedure,  but  unfortunately  the  ac- 
tion of  a  few  has  sometimes  brought  discredit  upon 
the  whole  body.  At  the  great  Centenary  Mission- 
ary Conference  held  in  Shanghai,  in  1907,  the  fol- 
lowing resolution  was  adopted.  "That  while  the 
time  has  not  yet  come  when  all  the  protection  to 
[Christian  converts  provided  in  the  treaties  can 
safely  be  withdrawn,  yet  we  recognize  that  such 
protection  afforded  at  the  instance  of  missionaries 
is  intrinsically  undesirable  and  also  very  liable  to 
abuse.  We  therefore  exhort  all  missionaries  to 
Mrge  upon  their  Chinese  Christians  the  duty  of 
jpatience  and  forbearance  under  pers'ecution  for 
Christ's  sake,  and  also  to  make  every  possible  ef- 
fort to  settle  matters  privately,  an  appeal  to  the 
magistrate  being  the  last  resort,  and  then  only  after 
full  and  careful  inquiry  into  the  real  facts  of  the 
case,  so  that  the  privileges  secured  by  treaty  to 
Chinese  Christians  may  not  be  abused,  or  the  purity 
of  the  Christian  Church  corrupted  and  its  good 
name  prejudiced." 


The  Influence  of  Christianity  237 

Property  Indemnity  a  Problem.  The  question  of 
indemnity  for  mission  property  destroyed  by  riot- 
ers is  indeed  a  vexatious  one.  On  the  one  hand,  if 
the  officials  knew  that  they  would  escape  scot  free 
whatever  happened  to  missionary  property  in  times 
of  disturbance,  provided  they  could  prove  that  they 
themselves  were  innocent,  they  would  be  tempted  to 
adopt  a  policy  of  laissez-faire,  and  would  not  exert 
themselves  to  keep  order  in  their  jurisdictions.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  fact  that  the  indemnity  is 
wrung  from  the  innocent  people  of  the  district 
where  the  riot  occurred,  and  does  not  actually  come 
out  of  the  pockets  of  the  officials,  earns  the  ill  will 
of  those  whom  the  Christian  Church  seeks  to  bene- 
fit. There  is  little  doubt  but  that  in  the  case  of 
the  Changsha  riots,  in  1910,  the  mission  property 
was  attacked  in  order  to  get  the  hated  local  officials 
into  trouble  with  the  central  government.  The 
change  of  government  in  China  and  the  granting 
of  complete  religious  toleration  will  certainly  min- 
imize all  cause  of  friction  in  the  future  between 
the  authorities  and  the  missions. 

3.  Rationalistic  Criticism.  In  regard  to  the  criti- 
cism of  the  rationalists,  in  some  ways  it  hardly  lies 
within  our  province  to  deal  with  it.  The  agnostic 
rationalist  has  discarded  belief  in  a  personal  God 
and  in  Christ  as  a  divine  Savior.  His  attacks  on 
missions  are  virtually  attacks  on  the  Christian  re- 
ligion, and  the  answer  to  them  is  the  work  of  the 
Christian  apologist.  We  have  been  struck  by  this 
in  connection  with  the  book  put  out  with  the  title 


1238  The  Emergency  in  China 

^A  Chinese  Appeal  to  Christendom.  It  was  written 
under  the  pseudonym  of  a  Chinese,  but  later  the 
author  confessed  that  he  was  an  Englishman.  Un- 
der the  pretext  of  criticizing  missions,  he  attacks 
many  of  the  fundamental  beliefs  of  the  Cfhristian 
religion.  We  might  dismiss  it  as  unworthy  of 
consideration  were  it  not  that  he  has  held  up  some 
of  the  weak  points  of  the  missionary  enterprise  as 
typical  of  the  whole.  It  would  be  well  for  intend- 
ing missionaries  to  read  the  book,  so  that  they  may 
see  themselves  as  others  see  them — even  when  the 
picture  is  somewhat  of  a  caricature.  The  value  of 
the  book  consists  in  this:  it  shows  very  plainly  the 
sort  of  men  and  women  needed  in  the  mission  field. 
It  will  not  do  to  think  that  enthusiasm  for  the 
cause  and  sincere  conversion  are  the  only  requisites. 
We  must  have  those  who  are  abreast  of  the  day, 
acquainted  with  the  results  of  theological  thought 
in  the  West,  and  with  knowledge  of  the  trend  of 
science.  It  will  be  disastrous  if  we  attempt  to 
propagate  exploded  theories  and  abandoned  ideas 
in  China  as  essential  parts  of  Christian  truth.  The 
thought  of  the  age  will  find  its  way  into  China,  and 
unless  the  missionary  is  acquainted  with  it,  he  will 
stand  convicted  of  ignorance,  or  else  will  appear 
in  the  guise  of  one  who  is  disingenuous  and  has 
been  concealing  certain  elements  of  knowledge  from 
his  flock. 

Appeal  of  the  Gospel.  So  much  may  be  noted 
in  regard  to  the  critics  of  missions.  The  unassail- 
able truth  is  that  the  religion  of  Christ  appeals  to 


The  Influence  of  Christianity  239 

the  hearts  of  the  Chinese  just  as  much  as  it  does 
to  the  hearts  of  Westerners,  and  that  accordingly 
Christianity  is  exerting  a  growing  influence  in  the 
country.  ^ 

The  Bond  of  Unity.  The  following  familiar  lines 
of  Kipling's  are  often  quoted  as  showing  that  there 
is  a  radical  difference  between  the  temperament  of 
Orientals  and  Occidentals : 

Oh !  East  is  East  and  West  is  West,  and  never  the  twain  shall 

meet 
Till  earth  and  sky  stand  presently  at  God's  great  judgment 

seat. 

Those  who  would  draw  such  a  conclusion  from 
the  lines  overlook  those  which  immediately  follow: 

But  there  is  neither  East  nor  West,  nor  border,  nor  breed,  nor 

birth 
When  two  strong  men  stand  face  to  face,  tho'  they  come  from 

the  ends  of  the  earth. 

The  intention  of  the  poet  was  to  show  that  with 
all  the  differences  there  is  an  underlying  unity  of 
nature.  That  is  just  what  missions  prove.  The 
gospel  of  the  love  of  God  in  Christ  makes  a  uni- 
versal appeal.  The  Lord's  own  words,  "And  I  if 
I  be  lifted  up  from  the  earth  will  draw  all  men 
unto  me,"  are  daily  being  fulfilled.  The  Confucian 
scholar  like  Chang  Bo-lin,  of  Tientsin,  who  resigns 
his  position  because  he  is  a  Christian,  and  the  poor 
dying  peasant  woman  who  has  carved  on  her  cof- 
fin a  little  cross  in  the  place  of  heathen  symbols 
that   others   may   know   she   died   in   the   faith   of 


240  The  Emergency  in  China 

Christ,  stand  at  the  opposite  poles  of  Chinese  so- 
ciety, but  the  gospel  appeals  to  both  alike. 

A  Hopeful  Parallel.  "China's  remoteness  from 
our  own  historical  ^och  gives  wings  to  the  imagi- 
nation, and  the  traveler  realizes  that  very  likely 
the  missionaries  there  face  much  the  same  situa- 
tion that  confronted  the  infant  Church  in  the  Ro- 
man Empire — in  both  cases,  temples,  gods,  images, 
altars,  priests,  sacrifices,  superstitions,  an  outworn 
mythology,  ancestor-worship,  and  moral  ideals  at- 
tracting only  the  elite.  The  Roman  Empire  was 
superior  to  China  in  civic  virtue,  but  China  is 
superior  in  domestic  virtue.  The  plane  of  culture 
does  not  appear  to  be  very  different.  .  .  .  Since 
Christianity  made  its  way  through  the  Roman  Em- 
pire chiefly  by  small  tradesmen,  artisans,  and  freed- 
men,  why  should  it  not  make  its  way  through  the 
Chinese  Empire?  ...  It  is  quite  as  congenial  to 
the  Chinese  as  it  was  to  the  people  of  the  Roman 
Empire  in  the  third  century."^ 

IMPORTANT   QUOTATIONS 

And  yet  I  am  sorry  to  say  that  the  lay  representatives  of  the 
Western  peoples,  the  Occidentals  living  in  China,  diplomatic, 
consular,  commercial,  or  industrial,  have  seldom  manifested 
during  the  past  year  genuine  sympathy  with  this  immense  ef- 
fort on  the  part  of  a  few  hundred  thousand  men  out  of  the 
huge  population  of  China.  It  is  very  possible — indeed,  common — 
for  a  foreign  merchant  to  remain  a  whole  generation  in  China 
and  never  make  the  acquaintance  of  a  single  Chinese  gentle- 
man, or,  indeed,  of  any  Chinese  above  the  grade  of  a  house- 
servant,  a  porter,  or  a  clerk.  An  English  merchant,  who  had 
been    conducting    thirty-five    years    a    successful;    widespread 

^E.  A.  Ross,  The  Changing  Chinese,  257-259. 


The  Influence  of  Christianity  241 

business  in  China,  told  me  that  he  did  not  know  a  single  word 
of  Chinese,  or  a  single  Chinese  man  except  his  compradore. 
Hundreds  of  foreigners  in  China  live  there  for  many  years 
without  making  the  acquaintance  of  a  single  Chinese  lady 
or  gentleman.  ...  In  the  clubs  organized  and  resorted  to 
by  English,  Americans,  and  other  foreigners  in  the  Chinese 
cities,  no  Chinese  person  is  eligible  for  membership.  Think 
what  that  implies  concerning  the  probable  ignorance  of  the 
Occidental  resident  in  China  concerning  the  Chinese  people, 
their  qualities,  their  hopes,  and  their  aspirations.  The  West- 
ern people  in  China  who  really  know  something  about  the 
Chinese  are  the  missionaries,  teachers,  and  other  foreigners 
who  go  to  China,  and_  stay  there,  with  some  philanthropic 
purpose,  or  hope  of  doing  good.  They  get  into  real  contact 
and  friendly  relations  with  the  Chinese,  both  educated  and 
uneducated.  One  must  not  be  surprised,  therefore,  if  one 
finds  among  foreign  business  men  who  have  lived  in  China 
only  the  most  superficial  acquaintance  with  Chinese  conditions 
and  qualities. 

— President  Charles  W.  Eliot,  Journal  of  Race  Develop- 
ment, January,  1913. 

The  last  change  to  be  noted  is  the  loss  of  prestige  the  mis- 
sionary has  suffered  because  of  the  familiarity  of  the  educated 
Orientals  with  the  life  of  the  so-called  Christian  nations.  For- 
merly, missionaries  were  regarded  as  typical  representatives 
of  Christianity.  Now  the  missionary  finds  by  his  side  men 
whose  lives  often  give  the  lie  to  what  he  preaches.  Around 
him  are  scores  of  educated  men  of  the  country  who  have 
traveled  or  studied  in  Europe  and  America.  Most  of  these 
men  have  seen  little  of  our  best  side,  and  our  worst  is  patent 
to  any  stranger  with  eyes  to  see.  It  is  no  wonder,  therefore, 
that  they  declare  that  Christianity  is  discounted  by  leading 
thinkers  in  the  countries  from  which  the  missionary  comes, 
and  that  he  is  trying  to  foist  upon  them  a  foreign  religion  that 
has  failed  at  home. 

—Dr.  E.  W.  Capen,  The  East  and  the  West,  April,  1912. 

There  is  no  "sign  of  progress"  more  marked  than  the 
changed  attitude  toward  Christianity,  on  the  part  of  officials, 
"^i^  gentry,  and  the  common  people.  The  attitude  of  the  officials 
^  is  more  than  simple  religious  toleration.  Under  the  old  regime, 
students  from  mission  schools  and  ministers  of  the  gospel  were 
not  even  allowed  a  voice  in  the  selection  of  delegates  to  the 
Provincial  Assembly.  Now  they  may  not  only  be  members  of 
this  Assembly,  but  numbers  of  them  have  been  appointed  to 


242  The  Emergency  in  China 

high  official  positions.  Those  who  have  investigated  tell  us 
that  65  per  cent,  of  the  present  officials  in  the  Kwangtung 
province  are  either  members  of  Christian  churches  or  in  such 
close  connection  with  churches  that  they  call  themselves  Chris- 
tians. 

— Dr.  H.  V.  NoYES^  Chinese  Recorder,  January,  1913. 

Having  listened  to  a  great  many  discussions  on  mission 
work,  there  has  grown  upon  us  the  feeling  that  as  a  body  we 
lack  perspective.  There  are  those  who  advocate  that  the 
boards  should  make  final  gifts  to  specific  fields,  and  then, 
with  the  exception  of  supporting  missionaries  and  maintaining 
institutions  already  established,  leave  the  problem  until  it  is 
assumed  by  the  Chinese  Church.  This  method  overlooks  the 
need  of  tremendous  development  intensively.  Others,  possibly 
rnore  numerous,  think  and  talk  as  though  the  task  of  the  for- 
eign mission  boards  and  the  missions  is  of  indefinite  duration. 
Listening  to  them,  one  gets  the  impression  that  it  is  our 
task  to  provide  a  sufficient  number  of  foreign  missionary  evan- 
gelists to  convert  China;  and  that  we  must  establish  an  edu- 
cational system  that  shall  meet  the  needs  of  the  whole  of 
China.  Should  we  not  be  truer  in  our  thinking  if  we  kept 
in  mind  the  fact  that  we  are  here  to  plant  Christianity;  to 
establish  a  nucleus  that  shall  determine  the  type  without  at- 
tempting to  carry  the  whole  burden  ?  We  need  a  certain  num- 
ber of  churches  built  with  Western  money;  we  need  a  com- 
plete educational  system  in  connection  with  our  Christian 
work;  we  need  medical  and  philanthropical  work  to  illustrate 
the  spirit  of  Christianity,  but  each  denomination  does  not 
need  itself  to  maintain  a  complete  educational  system,  and 
with  the  growing  Chinese  Church  we  should  no  longer  assume 
that  the  providing  of  a  sufficiency  of  evangelistic  workers 
rests  alone  upon  us.  Our  task  of  intensive  development  is 
far  from  finished,  but  more  and  more  the  problem  of  an  ex- 
tensive development  should  be  allowed  to  fall  upon  the 
Chinese  Church.  What  we  contribute  to  the  planting  of 
Christianity  must  be  the  best,  but  it  is  not  our  task  to  try 
to  give  all  that  is  needed  in  any  line  of  Christian  activity. 
— Editorial  in  the  Chinese  Recorder,  March,  1913. 


PRESENT    AND    FUTURE    OF    THE    CHRIS- 
TIAN  CHURCH 


CHAPTER   VIII 

ERESENT  AND    FUTURE   OF  THE   CHRIS- 
TIAN   CHURCH 

He  who  has  understood,  in  however  faint  degree, 
what  the  iirst  great  missionary  called  *'the  eternal 
purpose,"  or,  as  it  should  perhaps  he  rendered,  "the 
purpose  of  the  ages,"  namely,  that  through  the  Church 
of  God  should  he  made  known,  not  to  men  alone,  hut 
to  the  whole  universe,  the  manifold  wisdom  of  God, 
zvill  feel  that  all  argument  for  postponing  the  mission- 
ary enterprise,  which  is  based  upon  a  criticism  of  ap- 
parent results,  is  irrelevant.  What  is  most  needed  at 
the  present  time  is  not  a  juster  estimate  of  the  failure 
or  success  of  modern  missions  so  much  as  a  truer  ap- 
preciation of  their  iinal  aims. 

— Canon  C.  H.  Robinson 

Right  Measurement.  In  our  last  chapter  we  ut- 
tered a  warning  against  measuring  the  influence  of 
Christianity  in  China  merely  by  counting  the  num- 
ber of  converts.  At  the  same  time  we  acknowledged 
that  such  a  computation  was  necessary  and  an  in- 
dex to  progress. 

Statistics.  The  following  statistics  show  that  the 
work  of  founding  the  Christian  Church  in  China 
has  passed  its  initial  stage.    In  addition  to  one  mil- 

245 


246  The  Emergency  in  China 

lion  and  a  half  Christians  who  are  members  of  the 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  there  were  in  China  in 
1910  ^  connected  with  Protestant  Churches  a 
Christian  community  of  324,890.  There  are  502  or- 
dained pastors,  7,281  evangelists,  1,789  Bible- 
women,  and  2,955  congregations.  The  amount  con- 
tributed by  Chinese  for  Church  work  in  1910  was 
$150,000.  It  is  significant  to  note  that  the  ratio 
of  progress  has  greatly  accelerated  in  recent  years, 
and  that  the  number  of  Christian  converts  has 
doubled  since  the  year  1900.  As  the  movement 
gathers  momentum,  we  may  confidently  expect 
even  more  rapid  growth  in  the  future. 

Our  Aim.  We  have  come  now  to  the  stage  when 
we  must  seriously  consider  how  the  Christian 
Church  is  to  become  thoroughly  indigenous  in 
China.  Our  effort  must  be  threefold :  to  foster  self- 
extension,  self-support,  and  self-government.  We 
begin  to  look  forward  to  the  time  when  it  will  no 
longer  be  in  tutelage  to  the  foreign  Church  and 
when  the  work  will  cease  to  be  under  the  manage- 
ment of  the  foreign  missionary  sent  out  from  home. 
As  was  pointed  out  at  the  Edinburgh  Conference, 
the  Church  in  the  mission  field  is  one  of  the  most 
important  subjects  that  can  engage  our  attention. 
The  future  depends  upon  the  wise  development  of 
the  Church  already  in  existence.  The  passing  from 
childhood  to  manhood  with  institutions  as  with  in- 
dividuals is  the  most  critical  period. 

*  Latest  available  statistics,  given  in  China  Mission  Year 
Book,  1912,  p.  Ixxxvi. 


Present  and  Future  of  the  Christian  Church  247 

Self-extension.  Of  course,  the  time  has  not  yet 
arrived  when  we  can  leave  the  Church  in  China  to 
carry  on  its  own  missionary  propaganda.  Each 
native  congregation  should  be  a  center  of  mission- 
ary activity  and  each  sincere  Christian  should  act 
as  a  missionary,  but  the  work  to  be  accomplished 
is  so  vast  that  for  years  to  come  a  host  of  conse- 
crated men  and  women  from  Christian  lands  will 
be  needed  to  help  in  the  enterprise. 

Inadequate  Force.  The  number  of  Protestant 
missionaries  in  1910  was  5,144,  and  of  Roman 
Catholic  missionaries  1,475,  making  a  total  of 
6,619.  This  would  mean,  taking  the  population  of 
China  as  approximately  four  hundred  million,  that 
there  is  only  one  Protestant  foreign  missionary  to 
every  78,000  inhabitants.  If  we  make  our  calcula- 
tion after  adding  the  number  of  native  workers  of 
the  missions  we  may  compute  that  there  is  a  Prot- 
estant Christian  worker  to  every  20,000  inhabitants. 
This  shows  of  course  how  utterly  inadequate  the 
present  force  is  for  the  accomplishment  of  its  stu- 
pendous task. 

Unoccupied  Fields.  A  careful  survey  brings  out 
the  fact  that  there  are  many  portions  of  the  field 
still  unoccupied.  An  interesting  table  drawn  up 
by  Dr.  MacGillivray  in  the  China  Mission  Year 
Book,^  191 1,  states  the  number  of  missionaries  in 
each  province  and  shows  how  unequally  the  force 
is  distributed.  The  largest  number  was  in  Kiangsu, 
Kwantung,  Fukien,  and  Szechwan,  and  the  smallest 
*  See  page  293, 


248  The  Emergency  in  China 

in  Mongolia,  Sinkiang,  Kweichow,  and  Kwangsi.  In 
Kweichow,  for  instance,  there  was  one  missionary 
to  every  332,609  inhabitants.  Even  in  provinces 
v^ell  occupied  there  are  many  districts  where  little 
or  no  work  is  carried  on  as  is  the  case  in  Chekiang, 
Hupeh,  and  Kiangsi.  Of  course,  missionaries  in 
their  choice  of  location  have  largely  followed  the 
line  of  least  resistance,  and  heretofore  it  has  been 
difficult  to  obtain  a  footing  and  to  secure  residence 
in  many  portions  of  the  country.  With  the  door  of 
opportunity  now  thrown  open  more  widely,  it  will 
be  possible  to  locate  missions  in  places  formerly 
inaccessible. 

Need  of  Reenforcements.  Certain  conclusions 
are  suggested:  First,  the  need  of  reenforcements. 
Many  appeals  have  gone  out  to  the  home  Churches 
giving  an  estimate  of  the  force  of  workers  needed 
for  the  evangelization  of  China.  All  such  computa- 
tions must  be  more  or  less  tentative.  It  would  be 
a  reasonable  policy  to  attempt  to  double  the  pres- 
ent number  of  workers  in  the  immediate  future. 
A  word  of  caution  should  be  uttered,  however.  It 
will  not  be  wise  to  adopt  plans  by  which  we  can 
flood  China  with  missionaries  irrespective  of  their 
fitness  for  the  work.  As  in  the  past,  so  in  the 
future,  quality  will  count  for  more  than  quantity. 
The  conversion  of  the  East  calls  for  the  best 
equipped  men  and  women  the  West  can  send. 
Every  ounce  of  ability  can  be  used  to  good  purpose 
in  this  mission  field.  In  sending  fresh  recruits  we 
must   endeavor  to   raise   still   further  the   average 


Present  and  Future  of  the  Christian  Church  249 

standard  of  qualifications  of  the  entire  missionary 
force. 

More  Native  Workers.  Secondly,  the  other  con- 
clusion to  which  we  are  driven  is  the  absolute  neces- 
sity of  increasing  the  force  of  native  workers.  The 
man  who  is  successful  in  the  training  of  the  native 
ministry, — catechists  and  evangelists, — is  taking 
part  in  a  work  which  extends  his  own  influence 
many-fold.  As  was  noted  at  the  Edinburgh  Confer- 
ence :  ''The  supply  of  men  of  the  right  type  as  theo- 
logical students  is  not  at  all  adequate  to  the  de- 
mands of  the  work.  ...  It  is  evident  that  in  all 
parts  of  the  world  the  advance  of  civilization  and 
the  increasing  complexity  of  life  creates  a  difficulty 
in  securing  a  sufficient  supply  of  qualified  students. 
The  minds  of  inexperienced  young  men  in  the  mis- 
sion Churches  are  naturally  somewhat  distracted  by 
their  sudden  introduction  to  wide  ranges  of  knowl- 
edge and  interest  which  are  entirely  new  to  them. 
At  the  same  time  they  are  attracted  by  many  op- 
portunities of  turning  their  knowledge  to  account 
in  commerce  or  in  government  employment,  and 
these  callings  offer  a  much  higher  rate  of  payment 
than  that  which  is  offered  either  by  foreign  missions 
or  by  those  native  Churches  which  support  their 
own  workers.  It  is  quite  evident  that  there  is  gen- 
erally a  very  creditable  amount  of  loyalty  to  the 
Church  and  its  work,  and,  inadequate  as  the  supply 
of  qualified  students  is,  it  would  be  much  more  in- 
adequate but  for  the  fact  that  many  of  them  are 
willing  to  make  pecuniary  sacrifices  for  the  sake 


250  The  Emergency  in  China 

of  devoting  their  lives  to  the  service  of  the  Church, 
rather  than  engaging  in  more  lucrative  employ- 
ments."^ Over  and  over  again  we  meet  young  men 
in  the  ministry,  who  with  their  education  and  at- 
tainments could  secure  salaries  twice  and  three 
times  as  large  as  those  they  receive  from  the 
Church.  Only  as  the  general  spiritual  tide  of  the 
native  Church  rises  to  a  higher  level,  will  the  abso- 
lute essential — the  spirit  of  self-sacrifice — increase. 
When  the  young  men  are  actuated  by  this  spirit, 
there  will  no  longer  be  a  lack  of  applicants  for  the 
native  ministry. 

Need  of  a  Well-qualified  Ministry.  In  their  ur- 
gency for  the  increase  of  the  number  of  native  work- 
ers, missionaries  are  sometimes  tempted  to  lower 
the  standard  of  intellectual  qualification.  Those 
young  men  who  are  highly  educated  and  have  re- 
ceived a  knowledge  of  the  English  language  are 
attracted  away,  and  in  order  to  prevent  this,  the 
missionary  would  advocate  giving  an  education  that 
will  have  a  lower  pecuniary  value.  The  narrow  pol- 
icy of  restricting  our  education  would  be  a  fatal 
one.  China  calls  for  a  well-educated  ministry,  and 
we  must  give  our  young  men  as  wide  a  culture  as 
possible.  Although  we  need  simple,  earnest  evan- 
gelists for  our  work,  yet  the  supreme  need  is  for 
the  well-educated,  able,  consecrated  leaders.  We  must 
produce  men  of  the  type  of  Tertullian,  Origen, 
and  Clement  of  Alexandria,  if  we  are  going  to  in- 

^  Edinburgh  Conference  Report,  Vol.  II,  The  Church  in  the 
Mission  Field,  184. 


DING  LI  MEI,  CHINESE  EVANGELIST 


[p  250] 


Present  and  Future  of  the  Christian  Church  251 

fluence  profoundly  the  religious  life  and  thought  of 
this  nation.  We  must  remember  that  the  native 
missionary,  in  addition  to  having  to  meet  the  argu- 
ments raised  by  Confucianists,  Buddhists,  and  Tao- 
ists,  is  also  called  upon  to  resist  the  same  attacks 
on  religion  as  are  current  in  Western  countries,  for 
every  breeze  of  rationalistic  thought  is  felt  in 
China.  He  must  therefore  be  able  to  give  a  reason 
for  the  faith  that  is  in  him  and  to  show  that  the 
results  of  scientific  investigations  are  not  subversive 
of  the  truths  of  the  Christian  religion. 

The  Christian  College  and  Theological  Training. 
The  need  of  the  well-qualified  ministry  of  the  na- 
tive Church  to  help  in  the  extension  of  the  Church 
leads  to  the  subject  of  the  Christian  college.  Its 
development  is  a  necessity  as  it  is  the  training- 
ground  for  those  who  will  take  up  the  special  study 
of  theology.  ^'Theological  learning  in  apologetics, 
Biblical  criticism,  Church  history,  and  dogmatics, 
with  relevant  philosophy  and  ethics,  should  be  ade- 
quately taught  in  all  theological  schools  of  the 
higher  grades.  Now  that  the  battle  is  joined,  con- 
tentment with  makeshift  courses  of  training  for  our 
best  men  in  the  mission  field  would  be  disloyalty  to 
the  Christian  cause. "^ 

Mass  Movements.  Some  look  forward  to  more 
rapid  extension  of  the  Church  in  the  future  through 
what  may  be  called  "mass  movements."  There 
have   already  been   instances   of  whole  towns  and 

^  Edinburgh  Conference  Report,  Vol.  II,  The  Church  in  the 
Mission  Field,  198. 


252  The  Emergency  in  China 

districts  seeking  admission  to  the  Christian  Church, 
and  the  missionary  has  been  overwhelmed  by  what 
appears  on  the  surface  to  be  a  great  spiritual  move- 
ment. Experience  proves,  however,  that  much  cau- 
tion  must  be  used  in  guiding  and  controlling  such 
movements.  Sometimes  it  turns  out  "that  the 
movement  has  been  inspired  by  the  hope  of  gaining 
missionary  support  in  lawsuits  or  winning  the  ap- 
proval of  the  mandarins  or  enjoying  consular  pro- 
tection in  times  of  trouble.  In  one  district  of 
Kiangsi,  in  1901-02,  a  single  enthusiastic  missionary 
gathered  in  twenty  thousand  souls,  and  numerous 
self-supporting  congregations  arose.  But  presently 
the  proselytes  went  to  settling  old  scores  with  their 
Roman  Catholic  enemies,  and  the  new  missionary 
sent  out  to  sift  the  wheat  from  the  chaff  found 
himself,  after  a  year  of  Church  discipline,  with  only 
a  hundred  faithful."^ 

Peril  in  Mass  Movement.  The  thoughtful  mis- 
sionary looks  forward  with  anxiety  to  the  prospect 
of  multitudes  seeking  admission  into  the  Christian 
Church.  He  knows  that  the  day  is  coming  when  a 
general  movement  of  the  people  may  be  expected. 
He  remembers  that  in  the  history  of  the  Church 
in  the  past  wholesale  conversions  have  not  been 
an  undisguised  blessing.  The  tone  of  the  Church 
may  be  lowered.  Worldliness  may  creep  in.  A 
larger  mass  than  can  be  readily  assimilated  will 
present  innumerable  difficulties.  Spiritual  Chris- 
tianity is  advanced  by  winning  individuals,  not  by 
^E.  A.  Ross,  The  Changing  Chinese,  236. 


Present  and  Future  of  the  Christian  Church  253 

attracting  masses.  Complete  religious  toleration 
granted,  these  movements  will  be  unavoidable. 
Will  the  Church  be  ready  to  deal  with  them?  Will 
the  force  of  workers  be  sufficient?  Will  its  organi- 
zation be  strong  enough? 

Self-support.  In  the  early  days  the  missionary 
perhaps  did  too  much  in  the  way  of  pauperizing 
the  native  converts.  Everything  was  done  for  them 
and  they  naturally  came  to  look  on  the  Church  as 
a  great  benefactor,  conferring  benefits  with  no  ex- 
pectation of  a  return.  When  there  was  but  a  hand- 
ful of  Christians,  it  was  easy  to  allow  the  matter  of 
self-support  to  lie  dormant.  Now  it  has  become 
one  of  the  pressing  questions  of  the  hour,  and  we 
realize  that  only  a  self-supporting  Church  can  be- 
come indigenous.  Considerable  progress  has  been 
made,  and  we  find  many  congregations  supporting 
their  own  pastors,  meeting  all  their  own  expenses, 
and  carrying  on  missionary  work  among  the  non- 
Christian  population.  The  new  spirit  of  nationalism 
helps  to  foster  self-respect  in  the  congregations,  and 
they  are  no  longer  willing  to  rely  entirely  on  for- 
eign support.  They  have  grasped  the  connection 
between  self-support  and  self-government.  They 
have  conceived  the  aim  of  developing  an  autono- 
mous Church,  and  they  realize  that  the  first  essen- 
tial step  is  to  provide  for  their  own  maintenance. 

Methods  of  Encouraging  Self-support.  Different 
methods  of  encouraging  self-support  are  resorted 
to  by  different  missions.  The  underlying  principle 
is  the  same,  namely,  to  help  in  sustaining  native 


254  The  Emergency  in  China 

congregations  until  such  time  as  they  can  entirely 
assume  their  own  support.  The  Church  Missionary 
Society  has  worked  out  a  system  of  grants-in-aid 
to  native  congregations  which  decrease  in  propor- 
tion to  the  increase  in  church-membership.  Some 
take  the  ground  that  the  best  method  to  insure  self- 
support  is  to  connect  it  with  the  ordination  of  the 
ministry.  "When  a  congregation  has  become 
strong  enough  to  support  its  own  pastor,  then  it 
should  be  allowed  to  elect  one  of  the  evangelists, 
catechists,  or  theological  students  for  such  position, 
and  then,  and  not  until  then,  should  the  man  receive 
his  ordination  to  the  ministry." 

Question  of  Church  Edifices.  Care  must  be  exer- 
cised in  regard  to  providing  churches  for  native  con- 
gregations. The  investment  of  foreign  money  in 
schools,  hospitals,  and  similar  agencies  is  entirely 
legitimate,  for  such  institutions  represent  the  Chris- 
tian philanthropy  of  the  foreign  Church.  Al- 
though we  must  erect  churches  at  our  central  sta- 
tions worthy  of  the  Christian  religion,  where  Chris- 
tian worship  can  be  conducted  in  a  dignified  man- 
ner, yet  it  would  appear  to  be  better  to  allow  the 
edifices  to  come  for  the  most  part  as  the  natural 
development  of  the  Church  takes  place.  In  New 
Testament  times,  certainly  the  external  fabric  was 
not  considered  the  matter  of  prime  importance.  We 
read  of  the  church  in  the  household  of  this  or  that 
Christian.  Although  inconvenient  to  conduct  pub- 
lic worship  in  private  houses  or  rented  premises, 
yet  it  would  be  better  to  follow  this  plan  in  interior 


TEMPLE  OF  HEAVEN 

Where  Christian  worship  has  been  held 

SELF-SUPPORTING  CHURCH,  YU  YAO,  NEAR  NINGPO 


IP  251] 


Present  and  Future  of  the  Christian  Church  255 

stations  rather  than  provide  a  costly  shell  before 
there  is  the  life  within  of  which  it  should  be  the 
natural  embodiment.  In  every  case,  the  erection 
of  the  building  should  be  dependent  on  a  liberal 
subscription  on  the  part  of  the  congregation  for 
which  it  is  intended.  Dr.  J.  C.  Gibson,  of  Swatow, 
who  has  done  so  much  for  the  development  of  self- 
support  in  the  Church  in  the  mission  field,  writes 
the  following  encouraging  words :  The  problem  of 
the  self-support  of  the  Church  is  now  universally 
recognized  not  only  as  an  ideal,  but  as  a  working 
program  which  is  daily  advancing  towards  fulfil- 
ment. Time  is  needed  for  working  it  out,  but  the 
principles  and  the  assurance  of  success  are  now 
well  within  the  grasp  both  of  missionaries  and  of 
Chinese  Christians."  In  China  as  elsewhere,  Chris- 
tianity has  had  its  strongest  influence  first  among 
the  poorer  classes.  It  is  now  reaching  the  middle 
and  higher  classes.  In  proportion  as  it  permeates 
the  whole  of  society,  the  problem  of  self-support 
will  solve  itself. 

Self-government.  Even  if  the  missionary  was  not 
anxious  to  promote  self-government,  the  new  na- 
tional spirit,  as  we  have  already  stated,  is  a  force 
which  makes  for  it.  A  Church  under  foreign  con- 
trol appears  to  the  Chinese  as  a  foreign  religion. 
The  idea  of  its  being  foreign  deters  many  from  en- 
tering it.  The  Chinese  Church  has  already  shown 
what  it  can  do  in  the  way  of  self-support,  and  it  is 
also  manifesting  that  it  possesses  a  large  amount 
of  administrative  ability.     By  many  of  the  missions 


'256  The  Emergency  in  China 

great  steps  in  advance  have  been  taken  in  regard 
to  this  matter.  This  is  especially  the  case  with 
the  Presbyterian  missions  and  those  of  the  Anglican 
communion.  The  Chinese  are  very  anxious  for  a 
more  complete  autonomy,  but  most  of  them  are 
wise  enough  to  see  that  autonomy  and  self-support 
are  interrelated.  As  has  been  well  said,  ''Taxation 
without  representation  is  tyranny,  but  representa- 
tion without  taxation  is  worse." 

Impulses  Leading  to  It.  Some  attempts  havei 
already  been  made  to  break  loose  entirely  from 
mission  control  and  to  establish  an  independent 
Church.  Thus  far  they  have  not  proved  a  great 
success,  the  reason  being  that  most  of  the  Chinese 
prefer  to  remain  loyal  to  the  Church  in  which  they 
have  been  brought  up  and  to  await  patiently  the 
day  of  more  complete  autonomy.  We  may  expect, 
however,  increasing  restiveness  unless  a  greater 
share  in  management  and  control  is  given  to  the 
leaders  of  the  native  Church.  They  are  sensitive 
at  being  placed  in  a  position  where  it  appears  as 
if  they  were  the  servants  of  the  foreign  mission- 
aries, and  it  will  be  wise  to  give  them  increased 
responsibilities  just  as  fast  as  they  show  themselves 
capable  of  assuming  them.  As  has  often  been  said, 
we  must  endeavor  to  make  plain  that  the  foreign 
missionary  and  his  native  brother  are  coworkers 
in  one  cause,  and  we  must  remove  the  erroneous 
conception  that  the  latter  is  the  hireling  of  the 
former. 

Development  in  the  North.     An  interesting  ex- 


Present  and  Future  of  the  Christian  Church  257 

periment  in  the  development  of  an  independent 
Church  is  being  tried  in  the  North,  and  it  will  be 
watched  with  close  interest.  The  form  of  Church 
policy  and  the  statement  of  faith  which  it  adopts 
will  be  indicative  of  what  seems  to  be  of  greatest 
importance  to  the  Chinese  mind  in  connection  with 
Christianity. 

Native  Lack  of  Discipline.  One  of  the  greatest 
problems  the  Chinese  will  have  to  solve  in  connec- 
tion with  the  establishment  of  independent  churches 
is  that  of  discipline.  The  Oriental  dreads  making 
enemies,  for  he  never  feels  sure  but  that  some  day 
he  will  be  the  victim  of  the  injured  party.  On  this 
account  he  is  apt  to  be  reticent  in  regard  to  griev- 
ous offenses.  Lax  discipline  is  one  of  the  greatest 
faults  in  connection  with  the  government  school 
system.  The  same  sort  of  lax  discipline  in  the 
Church  would  be  disastrous. 

Mission  Unity  Needed.  Undoubtedly  one  of  the 
causes  holding  back  the  development  of  an  autono- 
mous Church  in  China  is  the  lack  of  corporate 
Church  unity.  If  all  Protestant  Christians  belonged 
to-day  to  one  united  body,  it  would  be  comparative- 
ly easy  for  them  to  become  an  independent  Church. 
Foreign  missionaries  have  propagated  their  own  di- 
visions and  thus  we  find  a  large  number  of  Churches, 
some  strong  and  some  weak  and  struggling.  The 
writer  is  convinced  that  sooner  or  later,  even  if  the 
home  Churches  were  benighted  enough  to  attempt 
to  plant  their  divisions  permanently,  a  great  cen- 
tralizing movement  will  take  place  among  the  na- 


258  The  Emergency  in  China 

tive  Churches.  The  reasons  for  remaining  apart 
can  never  appear  to  them  as  cogent  as  they  do  to 
us.  In  order  that  they  may  be  strong  in  the  face 
of  great  opposing  forces  they  will  unite.  The  prob- 
lem of  Church  unity  may  be  settled  on  the  mission 
field  sooner  than  it  is  in  Christian  lands. 

Spiritual  Life.  The  spiritual  life  of  the  Christian 
Church  is  of  course  a  matter  of  grave  concern.  Self- 
extension,  self-support,  and  self-government  all  ul- 
timately depend  upon  it.  A  living  Church  will  prop- 
agate itself,  support  itself,  and  develop  the  ability 
to  govern  itself.  Sometimes  we  are  discouraged 
because  the  native  Church  does  not  advance  more 
rapidly  in  spiritual  stature.  We  forget  that  it  must 
be  a  slow  growth  and  that  the  perfection  of  saints 
cannot  be  reached  by  a  sudden  leap.  We  would  be 
more  charitable  and  patient  if  we  bore  in  mind  the 
low  spiritual  and  moral  environment  by  which  the 
nascent  Church  is  surrounded. 

Evidence  in  Character.  The  Chinese  Church  has 
produced  many  men  and  women  of  saintly  charac- 
ter, and  in  the  persecution  connected  with  the 
Boxer  uprising,  many  proved  themselves  worthy 
of  enlisting  in  the  noble  army  of  martyrs.  Every 
missionary  can  bear  witness  in  his  own  personal 
experience  to  the  transforming  power  of  Christ  in 
the  lives  of  Christian  converts.  One  has  only  to 
read  a  biography  like  that  of  Pastor  Hsi  if  he  would 
have  an  evidence  of  the  high  type  of  character  pro- 
duced among  the  Christians  of  China. 

Revivals.    For  the  purpose  of  stimulating  growth 


Present  and  Future  of  the  Christian  Church  259 

in  spiritual  life,  the  method  of  holding  revivals  has 
been  resorted  to,  and  wonderful  accounts  reach  us 
of  the  effects  of  such  special  services  in  Manchuria, 
Fukien,  and  other  parts  of  China.  "There  have 
been  strange  demonstrations  of  contrition,  and  pub- 
lic confession  of  personal  sin,  accompanied  with 
great  intensity  and  perseverance  in  fervent  prayer.'* 
We  must  be  careful  in  the  use  of  such  methods, 
lest  they  lead  to  unwise  exaggeration  and  unhealthy 
excitement.  The  Chinese  who  have  appeared  to 
us  all  along  as  a  very  matter-of-fact  and  unemo- 
tional people,  have  proved  in  political  as  well  as  in 
religious  matters  subject  to  hysteria.  Religious 
appeals  directed  only  or  chiefly  to  the  emotions, 
apart  from  the  reason,  will  often  lead  to  disastrous 
consequences.  The  later  reaction  from  the  high 
pitch  of  excitement  is  apt  to  work  more  harm  than 
the  good  which  seemed  to  have  been  accomplished, 
"The  real  working  of  the  Holy  Spirit  must  mani^ 
fest  itself,  not  in  the  excitement  of  meetings  liow^ 
ever  profitable,  or  even  in  testimonies  however  fer-. 
vent,  but  by  'signs  following'  in  holiness  and  ele^ 
vation  of  spiritual  living."^ 

High  Relative  Level.  Taken  on  the  whole  it 
would  be  fair  to  say  that  the  average  of  spirituality 
and  morality  in  the  Christian  Church  to-day  in 
China  will  compare  most  favorably  with  that  of  the 
Church  in  the  home  lands. 

Outlook.  We  must  turn  now  to  the  outlook  for 
the  future.  No  one  can  predict  with  certainty  God's 
'  Dr.  J.  C  Gibson. 


26o  The  Emergency  in  China 

plans  in  regard  to  this  great  people.  We  may  take 
as  our  battle-cry  the  evangelization  of  the  world 
in  this  generation,  but  of  course  we  do  not  mean 
to  place  bounds  or  limits  to  God's  activity.  No 
one  knows  the  day  or  the  hour  of  the  coming  of 
the  Son  of  Man.  In  the  history  of  the  Church  as 
in  the  history  of  nations  it  is  the  unexpected  that 
is  always  happening.  Noting  the  advance  already 
made  and  relying  on  God's  promise,  we  are  right 
however  in  looking  forward  to  the  future  in  a  spirit 
of  hopefulness  and  courage.  If  the  Church  of 
Christ  realizes  the  criticalness  of  the  time,  and  the 
greatness  of  the  opportunity,  and  if  a  great  and 
united  effort  is  put  forth,  wonderful  things  may  be 
accomplished.  We  must  face  squarely  some  of  the 
problems  which  must  be  solved  and  the  means 
which  must  be  employed  so  that  the  missionary 
enterprise  in  China  may  be  brought  to  a  successful 
issue. 

Church  Unity.  One  of  the  most  pressing  prob- 
lems is  that  of  Church  unity.  Frequently  the 
divided  state  of  Christendom  is  lamented  on  account 
of  the  economic  loss  which  it  involves.  It  is  easy 
to  point  out  the  needless  expenditure  incurred  by 
the  support  of  so  much  machinery  in  the  home 
land  and  on  the  mission  field  which  would  be  un- 
necessary were  the  Church  one  corporate  body. 
Now  we  have  a  multiplication  of  mission  boards  at 
home  and  a  multiplication  of  mission  institutions 
in  the  field.  We  do  well  to  dwell  upon  this  disad- 
vantage connected  with  missionary  enterprise,  but 


Present  and  Future  of  the  Christian  Church  261 

it  is  not  the  greatest  evil  connected  with  division. 
The  loss  of  spiritual  energy  far  outweighs  the  eco- 
nomic loss.  Dr.  Newman  Smyth  has  used  the  fol- 
lowing striking  illustration.  If  we  take  a  number 
of  disconnected  cells,  we  know  we  can  get  only  a 
small  amount  of  energy  from  each.  If  we  unite 
them  in  one  battery,  the  energy  is  increased  greatly 
in  excess  of  the  sum  of  the  number  of  cells  used. 
So  it  would  be  with  the  Church.  Unity  would  lead 
to  a  vast  increase  in  the  spiritual  energy  of  the 
whole  body.  Is  not  this  the  reason  why  Christ 
associated  unity  and  the  power  of  witnessing  so 
closely  together:  "That  they  may  be  one,  that  the 
world  may  know  that  thou  hast  sent  me"? 

Strength  of  Movement  Abroad.  In  the  mission 
field  there  is  a  stronger  desire  for  unity  than  in 
the  home  Church.  The  missionary  realizes  its  ab- 
solute importance.  Hence  we  find  questions  of  co- 
operation, comity,  and  federation  frequently  dis- 
cussed. For  the  mcst  part  missionary  bodies  have 
agreed  to  avoid  unnecessary  overlapping  of  their 
work.  In  educational  work  they  have  accomplished 
a  good  deal  in  the  way  of  cooperation,  several  mis- 
sion bodies  uniting  in  the  support  of  one  institu- 
tion to  serve  the  needs  of  all.  The  list  of  such  co- 
operative schemes  is  on  the  increase.  We  now 
have  union  medical  colleges,  union  universities, 
union  theological  schools,  union  normal  schools, 
and  union  women's  college,  union  Bible  institutes, 
union  mission  presses,  and  union  tract  societies.^ 
^  China  Mission  Year  Book,  191 1,  p.  188. 


262  The  Emergency  in  China 

Large  Unions  Planned  in  Two  Fields.  In  North 
China  there  is  a  proposal,  on  the  lines  of  the  South 
India  United  Church,  to  unite  the  churches  of  the 
Presbyterian  missions,  the  American  Board  and 
London  missions,  the  Methodist  Episcopal,  Eng- 
lish Methodist,  and  English  Baptist  missions.  It  is 
suggested  that  the  name  should  be  The  Chinese 
Church  of  Christ.  In  West  China,  the  missionaries 
have  taken  in  hand  the  supreme  problem  of  form- 
ing one  Christian  Church.  Dr.  Joseph  Beech,  in 
speaking  of  the  endeavor,  says:  "We  may  fail  to 
convince  the  home  constituency  and  so  be  unable  to 
realize  outward  organic  union,  but  catholicity  and 
unity  will  continue  to  dominate  West  China."^ 

Need  of  Corporate  Reunion.  Cooperation,  how- 
ever, is  not  union,  and  the  difficulties  of  conducting 
cooperative  institutions  are  innumerable.  We  can- 
not be  satisfied  with  this  nor  with  federation  as 
the  final  solution  of  our  problem.  We  must  hope 
and  pray  for  the  corporate  reunion  of  Christendom. 
As  Dr.  Gibson  says :  "Assuredly  the  day  will  come 
when  Christian  men  will  feel  puzzled  to  explain 
why,  in  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth  century. 
Christians  thought  it  necessary,  even  in  the  pres- 
ence of  the  hostile  forces  around  them,  to  stand 
aloof  from  one  another.  We  talk  as  if  we  were 
under  some  inscrutable  doom  of  alienation  which 
we  cannot  escape.  Perhaps  the  specter  which 
haunts  us  is  but  the  shadow  of  ourselves,  and  if 
we  could  all  turn  full  face  to  the  light,  it  would  dis* 
^  China  Mission  Year  Book,  1912,  p.  276. 


Present  and  Future  of  the  Christian  Church  263 

appear.  What  if  the  chief  problem  of  the  Chinese 
Church  should  prove  to  be — Ourselves!" 

Denominational  Unification.  Another  encourag- 
ing sign  of  coming  unity  is  the  formation  by  closely 
related  units  of  larger  entities.  Presbyterian  bodies 
have  united  together.  Churches  of  the  Anglican 
communion  have  established  one  Church  for  China. 
Methodists,  Baptists,  and  Congregationalists  are 
shov^ing  the  same  centripetal  tendency.  When 
these  larger  units  are  formed,  mutual  conference 
between  them  v^ill  become  easier.  The  units  are 
nov^r  forming  molecules  and  we  may  expect  the 
molecules  to  be  attracted  to  one  another  until  the 
one  body  is  formed. 

Development  of  Educational  Work.  x\nother 
urgent  need  of  the  Church  in  China  is  the  rapid  de- 
velopment of  its  educational  work.  We  need  not  re- 
fer again  to  the  glorious  part  the  Christian  Church 
has  played  in  the  introduction  of  liberal  education 
into  China.  Now  we  confront  an  entirely  new  situa- 
tion. The  new  government  of  China  will  press  for- 
ward with  the  development  of  a  national  system 
of  education  for  the  whole  country.  It  will  follow 
in  the  footsteps  of  Japan.  It  will  look  to  the 
United  States  as  a  model.  What  will  become  of 
mission  educational  institutions  in  the  face  of  this 
increased  activity  on  the  part  of  the  government? 
Are  they  doomed  to  disappear  in  the  course  of 
twenty-five  or  fifty  years?  Will  they  any  longer 
be  necessary? 

Need   of   the    Christian    School.      In   answering 


264  The  Emergency  in  China 

these  questions  Ave  will  first  consider  their  neces- 
sity. If  the  Christian  schools  in  China  should  be 
blotted  out,  the  loss  would  be  irreparable  to  the 
cause  of  the  Church  and  the  extension  of  Christian 
civilization.  Government  schools  will  be  secular, 
and  inasmuch  as  they  will  exist  in  an  environment 
which  is  non-Christian,  we  cannot  expect  them  to 
exert  an  influence  in  favor  of  Christianity.  It  will 
probably  be  hostile. 

Object-lesson  of  Japan.  We  have  a  great  object- 
lesson  before  us  in  what  has  taken  place  in  Japan. 
In  the  first  number  of  the  International  Review  of 
Missions,  President  Tasuka  Harada,  LL.D.,  in  an 
article  on  "The  Present  Position  of  Christianity  in 
Japan"  points  out  the  fatal  mistake  made  by  the 
Christian  Church  in  that  country  by  its  neglect  of 
education.  ^'Thirty  years  ago,"  he  says,  ^'Christian 
higher  educational  institutions  could  compare  favor- 
ably with  the  corresponding  grade  of  government 
institutions  in  both  equipment  and  work,  and  Chris- 
tian schools  were  admittedly  in  the  front  rank. 
Meanwhile,  however,  government  and  public 
schools  have  advanced  a  hundred  paces,  while 
Christian  schools  have  taken  but  two  or  three  fal- 
tering steps."  And  again,  "If  the  falling  behind  of 
Christian  schools  is  not  checked,  it  is  no  exaggera- 
tion to  say  that  within  twenty  or  thirty  years  Chris- 
tian scholarship  will  be  an  inconsiderable  factor  in 
the  thought  and  higher  life  of  the  nation.  It  is 
certainly  a  crisis,  calling  for  resolute  action  and 
large  policies  by  all  the  Christian  forces.    We  need 


Present  and  Future  of  the  Christian  Church  265 

the  best  possible  middle  schools,  where  the  foun- 
dations of  high  and  manly  character  may  be  laid; 
we  need  Christian  higher  schools,  where  a  liberal 
training  may  be  given;  and  we  need  Christian  uni- 
versities, with  theological,  arts,  and  science  depart- 
ments, to  produce  leaders  in  these  branches  of 
knowledge.  .  .  .  For  the  consummation  of  the 
evangelization  of  Japan  in  any  true  sense  such 
educational  institutions  are  a  sine  qua  non,  and  for 
this  reason,  if  for  no  other,  we  must  continue  to 
look  for  generous  help  to  our  Christian  friends 
across  the  seas."  His  words  apply  even  more  forci- 
bly to  the  conditions  which  will  arise  in  China  if 
we  neglect  our  educational  work. 

Need  of  the  University.  The  need  of  the  Chris- 
tian university  in  China  has  been  much  discussed. 
Already  there  are  several  institutions  of  university 
grade,  and  all  that  prevents  their  further  develop- 
ment is  the  lack  of  funds.  The  United  Universities* 
scheme  for  a  university  in  Central  China  is  now 
before  the  public  and  appeals  for  its  support  are 
being  made  in  the  home  lands. 

Many  Higher  Institutions  Required.  It  would  be 
well,  however,  to  bear  in  mind  the  need  of  strength- 
ening many  phases  of  the  educational  work.  The 
founding  of  one  new  university  will  not  meet  the 
demand.  China  is  a  vast  country,  and  the  Church 
should  plan  for  the  building  up  of  colleges  and  uni- 
versities at  many  strategic  points.  Mr.  Leslie 
Johnston  in  the  January,  1912,  number  of  The  East 
and  the  West  asks  the  following  pertinent  questions: 


266  The  Emergency  in  China 

Can  the  Church  "afford  to  allow  the  stream  of  its 
education  to  flow  into  and  be  absorbed  by  the  sandy 
wastes  of  materialism?  That  is  what  the  lack  of  a 
Christian  university  will  mean,  for  the  only  other 
outlet  for  the  Christian  student  who  would  obtain 
advanced  knowledge  is  the  materialistic  government 
college  and  university." 

Need  of  Specialization.  Furthermore,  we  would 
emphasize  as  one  of  the  great  needs  of  the  future 
further  specialization.  We  have  reached  the  time 
when  the  work  calls  for  specialists.  Formerly,  the 
missionary  was  obliged  to  turn  his  hand  to  work 
for  which  he  had  no  special  training.  It  is  foolish 
to  expect  a  man  to  run  a  school,  carry  on  evangelis- 
tic work,  train  native  workers,  translate  books,  and 
administer  the  affairs  of  the  mission.  Only  by 
further  division  of  labor  can  the  work  be  carried  on 
efficiently.  We  need  evangelists,  pastors,  teachers, 
professors,  translators,  doctors,  nurses,  treasurers, 
business  managers,  kindergartners,  and  other  spe- 
cial workers. 

Literary  Work  Demanded.  It  would  be  difficult 
to  exaggerate  the  importance  of  setting  aside  more 
men  for  literary  work.  Schopenhauer,  Hartmann, 
and  Haeckel  have  been  translated  into  Chinese  and 
antichristian  literature  is  rapidly  increasing.  The 
Chinese  naturally  consider  that  these  are  the  latest 
and  final  utterances  of  Occidental  philosophy.  The 
only  possible  way  of  counteracting  their  widespread 
influence  is  by  the  dissemination  of  books  of  a  dif- 
ferent character.     Many  of  the  brightest  minds  of 


Present  and  Future  of  the  Christian  Church  267 

the  West  should  be  engaged  in  making  known  to 
China  through  translations  the  standard  literary- 
works  of  the  Occident,  so  that  they  may  obtain  an 
adequate  knowledge  of  Christian  philosophy  and 
have  a  true  conception  of  the  best  recent  utter- 
ances of  Western  writers  on  religious  subjects. 
Such  work  as  that  carried  on  by  the  Christian  Lit- 
erature Society  needs  to  be  greatly  expanded. 

Need  of  Evangelists.  Lastly,  as  we  have  already 
stated,  there  must  be  a  larger  number  of  those 
sometimes  called  "ordinary  missionaries"  devoting 
themselves  entirely  to  the  work  of  evangelization. 
They  should  be  dispersed  throughout  the  country, 
living  in  the  towns,  among  the  people,  forming 
friendships  with  them,  especially  with  those  of  the 
educated  classes.  If  such  missionaries  combine 
broad  culture  with  ardent  devotion  to  Christ,  and 
with  a  love  of  their  fellow  men,  they  will  play  a 
most  important  part  in  the  evangelization  of  China. 
"Is  it  not  time  to  stop  saying.  The  best  evangel- 
ists for  China  are  the  Chinese,'  and  'No  country  was 
ever  evangelized  but  by  its  own  people'?  These 
are  truisms,  that  is,  fractional  truths ;  but  they  have 
been  repeated  too  often,  and  like  other  truisms,  they 
have  become  untrue.  The  Western  Church  needs 
to  be  told  that  the  way  to  get  more  and  better  Chi- 
nese evangelists  is  to  send  out  more  and  better 
qualified  foreign  missionaries,  to  be  in  every  mis- 
sion its  evangelistic  corps,  the  nucleus  of  the  evan- 
gelistic corps  of  the  Chinese  Church."  ^ 

*Dr.  J.  C.  Gibson  in  China  Mission  Year  Book,  191 1,  p.  184. 


268  The  Emergency  in  China 

The  Calls^  As  we  glance  back  over  Church  his- 
tory, we  learn  that  from  time  to  time  there  came 
a  call  from  the  Head  of  the  Church  to  undertake  a 
task  of  stupendous  magnitude.  However,  before 
the  summons  was  issued,  the  way  was  prepared 
and  the  door  of  opportunity  flung  open.  So  it  was 
when  the  call  came  to  win  the  Roman  Empire.  No 
sooner  was  that  task  nearing  completion  than  an- 
other great  call  or  commission  was  imposed.  The 
downfall  of  the  Western  Roman  Empire  and  the  ir- 
ruption of  the  barbarians  from  the  north  made 
possible  the  conversion  of  Europe,  and  then  began 
the  missionary  work  among  Germans,  Franks,  Scan- 
dinavians, Celts,  and  Anglo-Saxons. 

Third  Great  Call.  Something  like  a  century  ago 
the  third  great  call  began  to  be  heard,  and  this  time 
it  was  for  the  Christian  conquest  of  the  Orient. 
Little  by  little  barriers  have  been  leveled,  and  the 
way  made  clear.  To-day  we  realize  that  Christ  is 
summoning  his  Church  to  the  conquest  of  China. 

Immensity  of  Task.  The  immensity  of  the  task 
is  inspiring.  The  Chinese  are  a  great  people:  first, 
on  account  of  their  number,  400,000,000,  to  be  won 
for  Christ;  second,  on  account  of  their  splendid 
racial  characteristics.  Tried  by  the  rule  of  the  sur- 
vival of  the  fittest,  they  have  survived,  and  will 
survive.  They  possess  untiring  patience,  indomit- 
able perseverance,  remarkable  fidelity  and  reliabil- 
ity, strong  common  sense,  keen  intellectual  ability, 
great  social  virtues,  frugal  simplicity  in  life,  and 
exalted  moral  ideals.     In  the  third  place,  they  are 


Present  and  Future  of  the  Christian  Church  269 

great  because  of  the  greatness  of  their  civilization, 
a  civilization  founded  on  moral  principles  and  not 
on  force,  the  highest  in  the  world  until  300  years 
ago,  and  hoary  in  years  compared  with  our  own. 
Surely  this  unique  people,  preserved  for  so  many 
centuries,  must  have  a  great  part  to  play  in  the 
future.  It  is  impossible  to  think  of  them  as  dying 
out  or  becoming  extinct.  No  one  can  foresee  their 
influence  on  the  coming  development  of  the  world's 
civilization. 

Point  of  Crisis.  The  criticalness  of  the  times  is 
an  inspiration.  The  old  civilization  is  declining, 
and  with  the  influx  of  Western  ideas  and  principles 
there  has  come  a  period  of  transition.  The  danger 
is  that  they  may  accept  only  what  is  bad  from  us 
and  reject  what  is  good.  Successful  materialism 
may  obscure  the  hoary  wisdom  of  their  own  philos- 
ophy. Now  is  the  time  when  they  need  to  learn  of 
the  spiritual  and  saving  power  of  the  religion  of 
Jesus  Christ. 

Greatness  of  Opportunity.  The  greatness  of  the 
opportunity  is  inspiring.  In  the  days  of  the  begin- 
ning of  Protestant  missions  in  China,  progress  was 
so  slow  that  it  appeared  as  if  the  task  was  hopeless. 
In  recent  years  a  marvelous  change  has  come. 
China  has  been  opened  up,  her  barriers  of  exclusive- 
ness  have  been  razed  to  the  ground.  She  wants  to 
learn  from  the  West.  China  is  awake.  "The  big- 
gest of  all  nations,  the  people  with  the  greatest 
latent  powers,  the  heirs  of  to-morrow,  have  started 
to  school  to  learn  all  the  ways  and  weapons  and 


270  The  Emergency  in  China 

wisdom  of  the  West."^  The  opportunity  to  influ- 
ence them  for  good  is  almost  incredible.  Can  we  put 
before  ourselves  any  higher  ideal  or  any  more  glori- 
ous ambition  than  to  have  a  part  in  the  uplift  of 
this  people.  The  Church  is  growing  with  wonder- 
ful rapidity.  We  can  ''look  on  the  fields,  for  they 
are  white  already  to  harvest."  As  in  the  past,  so 
now,  the  victory  will  not  be  won  without  a  struggle. 
The  same  conflict  between  the  power  of  darkness 
and  light  will  take  place  in  China  as  in  the  Roman 
Empire  and  as  in  the  forests  of  Europe. 

Who  will  Hear  and  Respond?  Will  the  Church 
heed  the  call?  Will  men  and  women  volunteer  to 
take  part  in  the  campaign  in  sufficient  numbers? 
Will  the  enterprise  be  supported  worthily?  Who 
will  listen  to  the  voice  saying,  ''Who  will  go?"  and 
answer,  counting  it  a  glorious  privilege  more  than 
a  sacrifice,  "Here  am  I,  send  me"? 

IMPORTANT   QUOTATIONS 

Such  success,  however,  brings  its  peculiar  dangers.  Chris- 
tianity is  in  peril  in  China  from  a  wave  of  intellectual  popu- 
larity. It  is  too  true  in  many  instances,  especially  among  the 
educated  youth  of  the  land,  that  with  the  head  man  believeth, 
and  with  the  mouth  a  formal  confession  is  made,  while  the 
heart,  the  very  fountain  of  faith,  is  still  parched  and  dry. 
An  unspiritual  confession  is  the  positive  danger  which  threat- 
ens many  of  the  churches  of  China,  especially  in  large  centers 
of  population  where  thought  is  quick  and  the  minds  of  men 
responsive  to  new  ideas.  Patronage  is  given  where  faith  is 
called  for,  and  acknowledgment  offered  rather  than  service. 
It  is  for  this  cause  that  many  Chinese  are  finding  their  church 
life,  or  the  substitute  for  it,  in  the  Chinese  Young  Men's 
Christian  Association.      ...     No  lowering  of  the  spiritual 

^  Ellis,  Men  and  Missions,  26. 


Present  and  Future  of  the  Christian  Church  271 

standards  of  church  life  can  be  thought  of  in  the  face  of  the 
situation  in  China  to-da}',  the  peril  of  a  soulless  Church  is  too 
great.  The  nation,  and  especially  the  genial,  well-wishing,  and 
socially  sympathetic  part  of  it,  must  be  made  to  understand 
that  the  Church  ideal  is  something  higher,  more  far-reaching, 
and  infinitely  more  searching  than  political  or  moral  reform, 
needful  and  good  as  these  may  be.  Mere  financial  patronage 
or  an  attitude  of  well-wishing  toleration  can  never  be  per- 
mitted to  take  the  place  of  Christian  confession.  China  is 
already  full  to  overflowing  of  those  who  "know  the  truth, 
but  do  it  not." 

— Rev.  Nelson  Bitton^  The  East  and  the  West,  October, 
1912. 

How  can  adequate  religious  training  be  secured  in  the  homes 
— the  natural  and  seemingly  indispensable  place  for  such  train- 
ing— when  the  almost  hopeless  conditions  of  ordinary  home 
life  are  considered,  where  but  few  of  the  large  family  are 
Christians,  and  the  privacy  and  leisure  required  are  well-nigh 
impossible  to  expect?  How  can  efficient  nurture  work  be 
planned  and  adequately  carried  forward  in  the  country 
churches,  vv^here  the  membership  is  small  and  scattered  over  a 
large  extent  of  territory,  and  likely  no  resident  pastor  or 
teacher?  How  can  adequate  religious  instruction  be  given  to 
a  lay  membership  with  a  low  average  church  attendance,  and 
certainly  in  some  sections  of  the  field  but  slight  intention  to 
set  aside  the  Sabbath  either  as  a  day  of  rest  from  daily  labor 
or  as  an  opportunity  for  worship  and  Christian  training? 
How  shall  time  be  taken  by  the  undermanned  and  not  suffi- 
ciently prepared  Chinese  preaching  agency  for  carefully 
planned  and  patiently  worked-out  lines  of  Bible  teaching  work, 
when  the  doors  for  preaching  the  gospel  are  open  now  as 
never  before?  And  how,  again,  shall  the  foreign  missionary 
hirnself  be  led  to  realize  more  fully  that  the  fundamental  con- 
dition to  a  satisfactory  harvest  is  a  constant  and  patient  nur- 
ture of  seed  already  planted,  when  all  about  in  these  days  of 
phenomienal  changes  crops  are  apparently  springing  up  in  a 
night  ? 

— Article  on  "Second  Summer  School  of  Methods,"  Chinese 
Recorder,  October,  1912. 

Ideas  of  social  service  are  very  foreign  to  the  Chinese. 
Such  ideas  introduced  apart  from  the  gospel  of  Christ  are 
certain  to  degenerate  into  the  old  religion  of  merit-making, 
which  has  proved  so  powerless  to  uplift  the  suffering  or 
ennoble  the  performer  of  these  ultimately  selfish  deeds.  But 
missions  after  the  revolution  will  surely  give  an  ever-increas- 


2']2  The  Emergency  in  China 

ing  emphasis  to  that  most  practical  manifestation  of  the  gos- 
pel, true  Christian  social  service,  in  the  name  of  Christ  and 
directly  for  his  glory  in  the  salvation  of  souls.  ^  As  in  the 
past  medical  missions  have  avowed  the  evangelistic  motive  as 
distinctly  paramount,  so  in  the  future  will  all  the  new  forms 
of  social  service  be  undertaken  steadfastly  holding  forth 
the  banner  of  the  cross.  Efforts  are  already  inaugurated  in 
Peking  and  elsewhere  to  enlist  the  interest  of  non-Christian 
students  and  others  who  have  come  recently  into  positions  of 
influence,  in  schemes  for  the  relief  and  uplift  of  various  de- 
pressed and  suffering  classes  in  the  community;  but  all  such 
efforts  acknowledged  openly  their  Christian  origin,  motive, 
and  object,  and  will  contribute  greatly  to  the  advancement  of 
the  kingdom  of  Christ.  Missions  after  the  revolution  will  be 
increasingly  practical,  and,  thus  following  their  most  practical 
Master,  will  surely  grow  also  increasingly  spiritual. 

There  remain  vast  unoccupied  areas  where  a  beginning  of 
evangelism  has  not  yet  been  made,  and  the  Chinese  Church 
has  no  force  prepared  to  do  the  work.  The  Christian  educa- 
tional institutions  already  established  are  but  as  a  drop  in 
the  bucket.  Almost  nothing  has  been  done  in  the  way  of 
normal  schools  for  the  fitting  of  Chinese  teachers.  The  evan- 
gelistic opportunity  of  the  times  among  all  grades  of  students 
in  the  government  schools  is  almost  unlimited  for  the  for- 
eigner, either  in  direct  work  or  through  social  and  institutional 
efforts.  Lectures  on  scientific,  political,  and  social  themes  are 
finding  a  most  unique  opportunity  to  propagate  Christianity 
as  well.  The  training  of  Christian  physicians,  and  the  possi- 
bility of  reaching  the  country  as  well  as  the  city  with  the 
gospel,  certified  by  a  skilful,  consecrated,  tender  ministry  to 
the  body,  are  but  in  their  beginning.  The  day  is  surely  coming 
when  all  these  things  can  be  done  by  the  native  Church  of 
this  then  great  republic;  but  no  more  fatal  mistake  could  be 
made  than  to  suppose  that  the  time  has  yet  come  for  the 
Christian  Churches  in  Europe  and  America  to  withhold  their 
hand  from  China's  need.  Missions  after  the  revolution  will 
show  less  undermanned  stations  with  one  man  breaking  under 
three  men's  work,  less  professional  men  doing  laymen's  work 
and  neglecting  perforce  their  expensively  prepared  profession, 
less  laymen,  perhaps,  attempting  the  work  of  the  professional; 
certainly  less  round  tools  working  in  square  holes. 

— Dr.  C.  H.  Fenn,  Chinese  Recorder,  November,  1912. 

There  are  those  who  speak  as  though  the  end  of  the  period 
of  tutelage  of  the  Church  in  China  is  not  in  sight  by  a  century 


APPENDIXES 


Appendix  A  279 


APPENDIX  A 
The  Orthography  and  Pronunciation  of  Chinese  Names 

There  is  no  entirely  satisfactory  method  of  representing 
all  Chinese  sounds  in  roman  letters.  Furthermore,  in  different 
parts  of  the  empire  many  of  those  sounds  materially  vary. 
Early  writers  on  China  adopted  the  French  spelling  and  pro- 
nunciation. Those  who  have  followed  have  too  often  written — 
as  travelers  still  do — every  man  that  which  is  right  in  his  own 
ears.  Within  the  last  forty  years,  however,  the  system  of 
romanization  of  Sir  Thomas  Wade  may  be  said  to  have 
become  definitely  established,  and  is  indeed  the  only  standard. 
As  with  any  system,  there  are  infelicities,  but  its  general  adop- 
tion in  China  renders  advisable  its  use  out  of  China  as  well. 
It  should  be  studied  by  the  aid  of  the  appended  key  to 
pronunciation  borrowed  from  Professor  Beach's  Dawn  on  the 
Hills  of  Tang.  The  vicious  and  intolerable  mispronunciation 
of  Chinese  names  now  generally  current  ought  thus  to  be 
gradually  corrected. 

A  few  observations  should  be  made  on  some  exceptions  to 
the  use  of  Wade's  system,  and  on  the  division  and  hyphenation 
of  Chinese  names.  The  names  of  a  few  Chinese  cities  have 
a  well-recognized  notation  which  it  would  be  affectation  to 
attempt  to  alter.  It  is  as  out  of  place  to  insist  upon  writing 
Kwangchow  Fu  for  Canton,  or  T'ien-ching  for  Tientsin,  as 
to  set  down  Napoli  and  Bruxelles  for  Naples  and  Brussels. 
There  are  other  words  in  which  it  is  likewise  inexpedient  to 
sacrifice  intelligibility  to  mechanical  uniformity.  In  central 
China  a  final  letter  is  often  dropped,  and  thus  grew  up  the 
notation  Pekin  and  Nankin,  instead  of  Peking  and  Nanking, 
which  should  always  be  used.  There  is  an  aspirate  usually 
marked  by  an  inverted  apostrophe,  as  Ch'ien. 

The  names  of  cities  should  not  be  written  as  one  word — 
e.g.,  Paotingfu,  but  separately  with  or  without  capitals,  either 
Pao  Ting  Fu  or  Pao-ting  fu ;  never  Pao-ting-fu.  The  first  two 
syllables  are  related  in  meaning  (Guarding  Tranquillity), 
while  the  third  shows  the  rank  of  the  city  as  prefectural 
(governing  a  group  of  county-seats). 


28o 


Appendix  A 


The  surname  precedes  the  name  and  should  always  be 
separately  written  without  the  hyphen.  If  the  personal  name 
has  two  characters  they  may  be  written  separately,  or  better 
connected  by  a  hyphen.  These  principles  may  be  illustrated 
in  the  three  syllables  connoting  the  designation  of  China's  best 
modern  statesman.  Do  not  write  Lihungchang;  or  Li-hung- 
chang;  or  Li-Hung-Chang;  but  either  Li  Hung  Chang,  or 
(better)   Li  Hung-chang. 


a  as  in  father 

ai  as  in  aislt 

ao  as  ow  in  now 

*ch  as  y  in  ;ar 

ch'  as  in  c/zange 

e  as  in  p^rch 

e  in  eh,  en,  as  in  yet,  when 

ei  as  ey  in  wh^3; 

"^hs  as   hss  in  hiss\n%,   when 

the  first  i  is  omitted 
i    as    in    machine,    when    it 

stands  alone  or  at  the  end 

of  a  word 
i  as    in   pin,    when   before   n 

and  ng 
ia  as  eo  in  geology 
iao  as  e  ou  in  me  out 
ie  as  in  siesta. 
*ih  as  er  in  over 
iu  as  eu  in  jehu,  when  h  is 

omitted 
*y  as  the  first  r  in  regular 
*^  as  g  in  game 
k'  as  ^ 


wg  as  m  sing 
*o  as  oa  in  boa-constrictor 
ou  as  in  thoMgh 
*p  as  & 
p'  as  /) 

r/r  as  rr  in  burr 
jj  as  in  hiss 
*t  as  rf 
t'  as  / 

*/j  as  ds  in  parfj 
f/  as  in  cats 
*t3  as  </j  in  pads 
tz'  as  fj  in  cats 
u  as  00  in  too 
ua  as  oe  o  in  shoe  on 
uai  as  o  ey  in  two  ^j'es 
uei  as  way 
wi  as  ewy  in  scr^zc/y 
*w  as  final  a  in  America 
*w  as  French  u  or  German  ii 
*ua  as  French  w  plus  a  in  on 
*M^   as    French   u   plus   ^   in 
y^t 


*Those  thus  marked  have  no  close  English  equivalents. 
Consonants  followed  by  an  aspirate  (*)  are  almost  like  the 
same  in  English;  the  same  consonants  without  the  aspirate 
are  more  difficult  to  correctly  pronounce. 


Appendix  B  281 


APPENDIX  B 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Country  and  People 

Williams,  S.  W.     The  Middle  Kingdom.     2  Vols.     (Second 
edition,  '83.)     Charles  Scribner's  Sons,  New  York.    $9.00. 
The  standard  reference  work  in  English,  treating  China 
for  the  last  century.     The  chapters  on  government,  litera- 
ture, religions,  and  history  are  especially  valuable. 

Smith,  Arthur  H.  Chinese  Characteristics.  1894.  Fleming 
H.  Revell  Company,  New  York.    $2.00. 

A  most  entertaining  account  of  the  characteristics  of 
the  Chinese  by  a  keen  observer  and  brilliant  writer.  The 
presentation  inclines  toward  satire. 

Smith,  Arthur  H.  Village  Life  in  China.  1900.  Fleming  H. 
Revell  Company,  New  York.     $2.00. 

The  author  is  not  a  trained  sociologist,  but  has  unusual 
powers  of  observation  and  description.  The  book  fills  a 
unique  place. 

McCormick,  Frederick.  The  Flowery  Republic.  1913.  D. 
Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York.    $2.50. 

Detailed  description  of  the  events  of  the  Chinese  revo- 
lution by  the  well-known  correspondent,  who  saw  many 
of  the  events  at  close  range. 

Ross,  E.  A.  The  Changing  Chinese.  191 1.  The  Century 
Company,  New  York.     $2.50. 

Written  by  a  professor  of  sociology,  this  book  contains 
much  that  would  escape  the  ordinary  observer.  Perhaps 
the  most  readable  of  the  recent  books. 

Reinsch,  P.  S.  Intellectual  and  Political  Currents  in  the  Far 
East.  1911.  Houghton,  Mifflin  Company,  New  York, 
$2.00. 

Another  work  by  a  university  professor  and  careful 
student  of  the  East.  Three  very  thoughtful  chapters  on 
China.     The  author  seems  too  appreciative  of  Buddhism. 

Gascoyne-Cecil,  Lord  William.  Changing  China.  1910.  D, 
Appleton  &  Co.,  New  York.     $2.00. 

A  record  of  a  survey  of  China^  made  in  behalf  of  the 
United  Universities  Scheme.  Discussions  from  educa- 
tional and  missionary  standpoints. 


282  Appendix  B 

Blakeslee,   G.    H.,    editor.      China   and   the    Far   East.      1910. 
T.   Y.    Crowell   Company,   New   York.     $2.00. 

A  symposium  of  addresses  deHvered  at  Clark  University 
in  1909  by  many  experts.  Treats  political,  social,  and 
religious  conditions.  A  similar  symposium  is  appearing 
in  the  Journal  of  Race  Development  for  1913. 

China — Social  and  Economic  Conditions.     A  series  of  papers 
by  American  students  of  China  and  Chinese  writers. 

Ball,  J.   Dyer.     The  Chinese  at  Home.     191 3.     Fleming   H. 
Revell  Company,  New  York.     $2.00,  net. 

Written  by  an  authority  on  China.  He  treats  in  detail 
many  phases  of  Chinese  life. 

Brown,  Arthur  J.     The  Chinese  Revolution.     1912.     Student 
Volunteer  ]\Iovement,  New  York.     75  cents. 

An  interesting  sketch  of  the  present  situation,  _  with 
parts  of  the  author's  New  Forces  in  Old  China  incor- 
porated. 

The    China    Year    Book    (Bell    and    Woodhead).      1912-1913. 
Dutton,  New  York.     $3.00. 

A  valuable  collection  of  facts  and  statistics  relating  to 
China.  The  latest  volume  is  especially  interesting  as 
furnishing  such  full  information  on  the  Chinese  Republic. 

Special  Subjects 

Chang  Chih-tung.     China's  Only  Hope.     1900.     Translated  by 

S.    I.   Woodbridge.     Fleming   H.   Revell   Company,   New 

York,  75  cents. 

A  trumpet-call  to  the  n^'.ion  written  in  1898.     A  book 

that  has  exerted  an  immense  influence. 
Douglas,   Robert  K.     China    (Story  of  the  Nations   Series). 

Revised.     1901.     G.  P.  Putnam's  Sons,  New  York.    $1.50. 
A  history  of  China,  giving  special  attention  to  the  last 

three  centuries.     Rather  anti-Chinese  in  tone. 
Smith,  Arthur  H.    China  and  America  To-day.    1907.    Fleming 

H.  Revell  Company,  New  York.     $1.25,  net. 
More    appreciative    of   the   Chinese  than   most   of   Dr. 

Smith's  books,  and  emphasizes  America's  duty  to  China. 
Macgowan,  J.     Men  and  Manners  in   Modern   China.     1912. 

Dodd,  Mead  and  Company,  New  York.     $3-5o. 

Sketches  by  one  who  lived  long  in  China  and  had  ex- 
ceptional first-hand  knowledge.    Exceedingly  readable  and 

to  the  point. 
Bland,  J.  O.  P.    Recent  Events  and  Present  Policies  In  China. 

1912.     LIppIncott  &  Co.,   Philadelphia.     $4.00. 


Appendix  B  283 

A  book  full  of  personal  bias  against  republican  govern- 
ment, political  reform,  anti-opium  crusade,  etc.,  but  with 
valuable  information  on  many  important  subjects. 
Cantlie,  James,  &  C  Sheridan  Jones.  Sun  Yat  Sen  and  the 
Awakening  of  China.  1912.  Fleming  H,  Revell  Company, 
New  York.  _  $1.25. 

Poorly  written  and  containing  inaccuracies  of  statement, 
but  interesting  on  account  of  the  author's  close  acquaint- 
ance with  a  remarkable  man. 
Burton,  Margaret  E.     Education  of  Women  in  China.     191 1. 
Fleming  H.  Revell  Company,  New  York.    $1.25. 

Generally  considered  to  be  the  most  authoritative  treat- 
ment of  this  subject. 
Burton,    Margaret    E.      Notable    Women    in    Modern    China. 
1912.    Fleming  H,  Revell  Company,  New  York.    $1.25. 

Attractively  written  sketches  of  the  lives  of  six 
Christian  Chinese  women  who  are  strong  testimonies  to 
the  power  of  Christianity. 
Morse,  H.  B.  The  Trade  and  Administration  of  the  Chinese 
Empire.  1908.  Longman's,  Green  &  Co.,  New  York. 
$2.50,  net. 

Generally  considered  to  be  the  most  authoritative  treat- 
ment of  this  subject. 


Religions 

DeGroot,  J.  J.  M.     Religion  in  China.     1912.     Putnam,  New 
York.     $1.50.  _  ^ 

Buddhism    is   omitted    and    Confucianism    and    Taoism 
treated  more  fully  than  in  his  previous  volume. 
Douglas,    Robert    K.      Confucianism    and    Taoism.      Revised. 
1906.    E.  S.  Gorham,  New  York,    75  cents. 

One  of  the  most  satisfactory  statements  of  the  precepts 
of  China's  indigenous  religions  to  be  found  in  brief  com- 
pass. 
Legge,  James.    The  Religions  of  China.    1881.    Charles  Scrib- 
ner's  Sons,  New  York.     $1.50. 

Four  lectures  delivered  on  Confucianism  and  Taoism, 
including  a  comparison  with  Christianity,  by  one  of  the 
ablest  English  authorities. 
Beal,   S.     Buddhism  in  China.     1884.     E.   S.   Gorham,   New 
York,     75  cents. 

An  account  of  the  introduction  and  history  of  Buddhism 
in  China,  with  a  valuable  statement  of  the  northern  view 
of  Buddha  and  his  teaching. 


284  Appendix  B 

Missions 

The  China  Mission  Year  Book,  volumes  for  1910,  191 1,  and 

1912.    Missionary  Education  Movement,  New  York.    $1.50. 

Annual  survey  of  missionary  work  and  its  setting  which 

is  indispensable.     The  many  phases  of  work  are  treated 

by  specially  qualified  writers. 

Centenary  Missionary  Conference  Report,  Shanghai,  China, 
1907.     American  Tract  Society,  New  York.    $2.50,  net. 

Contains  resolutions  and  discussions  of  the  Centenary 
Conference  of  1,000  missionaries  assembled  in  Shanghai 
in  1907.  No  student  of  missions  in  China  can  afford  to 
ignore  this  volume. 

World  Missionary  Conference  Report,  Edinburgh,  1910.  Flem- 
ing H.  Revell  Company,  New  York.    9  vols.    $5.00. 

These  reports  lead  up  to  weighty  conclusions  as  to  the 
principles  of  missionary  work.  China  bulks  large  in  the 
whole  discussion. 

Headland,  Isaac  T.  China's  New  Day.  1912.  Central  Com- 
mittee on  the  United  Study  of  Missions,  West  Medford, 
Mass.    Cloth,  50  cents ;  paper,  30  cents. 

Prepared  as  a  text-book  for  the  Central  Committee  on 
the  United  Study  of  Missions. 

Fisher,  D.  W.  Calvin  Wilson  Mateer.  191 1.  Westminster 
Press,  Philadelphia.     $1.50,  net. 

The  life  of  a  strong  man  who  did  a  great  work  of 
education  and  Bible  translation  in  China. 

Soothill,  W.  E.  A  typical  Mission  in  China.  1906.  Fleming 
H.  Revell  Company,  New  York.    $1.50. 

Mission  problems  and  mission  methods  discussed  by 
one  who  has  a  keen  sense  of  the  needs  of  China.  It  con- 
tains most  valuable  information  on  the  social  and  religious 
life  of  the  Chinese. 

Gibson,  J.  Campbell.  Mission  Problems  and  Mission  Methods 
in  South  China.  191 1.  Fleming  H.  Revell  Company,  New 
York.    $1.50. 

An  exceedingly  well-written  volume,  treating  missionary 
problems,  their  failures,  successes,  and  achievements,  in 
a  scientific  and  statesmanlike  manner. 

Osgood,  E.  I.  Breaking  Down  Chinese  Walls.  1908.  Fleming 
H.  Revell  Company,  New  York.    $1.00. 

An  interestingly  written  account  by  one  who  has  con- 
ducted a  hospital  and  dispensary  in  China  for  eight  years, 
preaching  the  gospel  and  healing  the  sick  in  the  villages 
round  about. 

Kilborn,  Omar  L.     Heal  the  Sick.     1910.    Missionary  Society 


Appendix  B  285 

of  the  Methodist  Church,  Toronto.     50  cents,  cloth;  35 
cents,  paper. 

Story  of  medical  missions  as  carried  on  by  a  Canadian 
missionary  in  West  China.  Contains  two  chapters  on  the 
Canadian  Methodist  Medical  Work. 

The  Chinese  ^  Recorder,  published  by  the  American  Presby- 
terian Mission  Press,  Shanghai,  monthly.  $1.75  a  year, 
postpaid. 

Represents  the  missionary  interests  of  China,  with 
articles  of  great  variety  and  value.  Indispensable  for  those 
who  wish  to  keep  in  close  touch  with  missionary  work  in 
China. 

The  International   Review  of  Missions. 

Represents  the  Continuation  Committee  of  the  Edin- 
burgh Missionary  Conference.  The  articles  are  of  high 
grade  and  will  appeal  most  to  thoughtful  students  of 
missions. 

The  East  and  the  West,  published  by  the  Society  for  the 
Propagation  of  the  Gospel,  London.  May  be  ordered  from 
Tice  &  Lynch,  16  Beaver  Street,  New  York  City,  at 
$1.14  a  year,  postpaid. 

Published  by  an  Anglican  Society,  but  contains  many 
articles  by  non-Anglican  writers.  For  the  most  part  treats 
large  issues  in  a  very  suggestive  way. 


286  Appendix  C 


APPENDIX  C 

Area  and  Population* 

Chinese  Empire 

Popula- 
tion per 
Square  miles         Population     sq.  mile 

China  Proper  1,532,420  407,335.305  266 

Dependencies : 

Manchuria    363,610  16,000,000  44 

Mongolia   1,367,600  2,600,000  2 

Tibet 463,200  6,500,000  14 

Sinkiang 550,340  1,200,000  2 


Total 4,277,170       433,635,305        loi 


Provinces  of  China 

Anhwei 54,8io  23,670,314  432 

Chekiang   36,670  1 1,580,692  316 

Kiangsi   69,480  26,532,125  382 

Kiangsu    38,600  13,980,235  362 

Chihli    1 15,800  20,937,000  180 

Fukien    46;320  22,876,540  494 

Honan    67,940  35,316,800  520 

Hunan    83,380  22,169,673  266 

Hupeh  71,410  35,280,685  492 

Kansu  125,450  10,385,376  82 

Kwangsi 77,200  5,142,330  67 

Kwangtung 99,97o  31,865,251  319 

Kweichow   •     67,160  7,650,282  114 

Shansi 81,830  12,200,456  149 

Shantung  SS,970  38,247,900  683 

Shensi    75,270  8,450,182  iii 

Szechwan    218,480  68,724,890  314 

Yunnan    146,680  12,324,574  84 

Total 1,532,420  407,335,305  266 

^Statesman's  Y ear-Book,  1912.     (Corrected  total  of  popula- 
tion.) 


Appendix  C  287 

Early  Estimates  of  Population 

Table    below    shows    the    estimated  population    at    various 

dates    (obtained   from  various   sources  and  abstracted   chiefly 

from  The  Middle  Kingdom)  and  the  latest  official  estimates 
of  the  population:^ 

A.  D.  1381 59,850,000      A.  D.  1760 (143,125,225 

1412 65,377,000  1 203,910,477 

1580 60,692,000  1761 205,293,053 

1662 21,068,600  1762 198,214,553 

1668 25,386,209  1790 155,249,897 

1710 J   23,312,200  1792 y  307,467,200 

I   27,241,129  1  333,000,000 

171 1 28,241,129  1812 (362,467,183 

1736 125,046,245  1  360,440,000 

f  157,343,975  1842 413,021,000 

1743 \    149,332,730  1868 404,946,514 

L  150,265,475  1881 380,000,000 

I7S3 103,050,600  1882 381,309,000 

1885 377,636,000 


Comparison  of  Censuses  Recently  Taken^ 

Mr.  Tenney's  Peking                  The  Na- 

Figures  Daily  News         tional  Review 

18      Provinces      and 

Manchuria     331,188,000  307,919,410        357,919,410 

Manchu     Bannermen, 

etc 2,460,000  2,286,520            2,286,520 

Sinkiang    2,491,000  2,243,895            2,243,895 

Tibet 6,500,000  

Total  .......  342,639,000  312,449,825        362,449,825 

*  China  Year  Book,  1913- 

^  China  Mission  Year  Book,  1912. 


288  Appendix  D 


APPENDIX  D 

Dates  of  Important  Events  in  Modern  Chinese  History 
A.D. 

1275    Marco  Polo  arrived  at  Court  of  Kublai  Khan. 
15 16    Portuguese  arrived  at  Canton. 
157s     Spanish  arrived  at  Canton. 

1580    Father  Roger  and  Matteo  Ricci  entered  Canton. 
1622    Dutch  arrived  in  China. 
1635    English   arrived   at   Canton. 
1660    Tea  first  carried  to  England. 

1670    Beginning   of  trade   with   the   East   India    Company. 
1719    Beginning  of  commerce  with  Russia. 
1784    First   American   merchant   vessel   left   New   York   for 

China. 
1792    Earl  Macartney  received  by  the  emperor. 
1816    Lord  Amherst's   unsuccessful  embassy. 
1834    Opium  dispute  begins. 
1839    Beginning  of  war  with  Great  Britain. 
1842    August  29,  treaty  of  peace  signed  at  Nanking. 
1844    July  3,  first  treaty  between  United  States  and  China. 
1859    November    24,    commercial    treaty    with    the    United 

States. 
i860    October  13,  British  and  French  capture  Peking. 
1864    Taiping  rebellion  crushed. 
1868    Burlingame  treaty  signed. 
1870    June  21,  Tientsin  massacre. 
1873    June  29,  foreign  ministers  received  in  audience  by  the 

emperor. 
1875    Death  of  Emperor  Tung  Chi,  and  accession  of  Kuang 

Hsu. 
1880    November  17,  new  treaty  with  the  United  States  signed. 

1887  February,   assumption  of  government  by  the   Emperor 

Kuang  Hsu. 

1888  American  exclusion  acts  against  Chinese  passed. 
1891     Anti-foreign  riots  in  the  Yangtze  valley. 

1894  War  with  Japan,  concluded  in  1905. 

1897  November,  seizure  of  Kiaochow  by  Germany. 

1898  March,  Russia  leases  Port  Arthur  of  China. 
1898  Reform  edicts  by  the  emperor. 

1898    Counter  edicts  by  the  empress  dowager,  and  dethrone- 
ment of  the  emperor. 


Appendix  D  289 

1899  Rise  of  the  Boxer  movement. 

1900  June  17,  capture  of  Taku  forts  by  the  allies.^ 

1900  June  20,  murder  of  the  German  minister.     Siege  of  the 

legations  in  Peking. 

1900  August  14,  relief  of  the  Peking  legations  by  allies. 

1900  August  15,  flight  of  the  court  to  Sianfu. 

1900  September  9,  signing  of  the  peace  protocol. 

1902  January,  return  of  the  court  to  Peking. 

1904  February  8  to  September  5,  1905,  war  between  Japan 

and  Russia. 

1905  December,    dispatch    of    tj^o    imperial    commissions    to 

America  and  Europe  to  study  constitutional  govern- 
ment. 
1905    Abolition  of  old  style  civil  service  examination. 

1905  Adoption  of  Occidental  system  of  education. 

1906  Issue  of  imperial  edict    against  opium. 

1907  Extension  of  educational  privileges  to  women. 

1909  Introduction  of  Provincial   Councils. 

1910  Meeting  of  National  Assembly. 

191 1  Beginning  of  the  revolution. 

1912  Imperial  decree  of  abdication  by  Manchu  clan. 

1912    January   i,   Sun  Yat-sen  became  provisional   President 

at  Nanking. 
1912    February    14,    Sun    Yat-sen    resigned    the    provisional 

Presidency. 

1912  March    10,    Yuan    Shih-kai    took    oath    as    provisional 

President  at   Peking,   uniting  North  and   South. 

1913  April  8,  National  Assembly  met  to  form  a  Constitution. 
1913    May,  Republic  of  China  recognized  by  United  States. 


290 


Appendix  E 


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Appendix  F  291 


APPENDIX  F 

Opium 

Opium  Edict, ^  September  20,  1906 

1.  Farmers  are  forbidden  to  plant  new  ground  to  poppies, 
and  the  area  now  used  for  that  purpose  must  be  diminished 
ten  per  cent,  each  year,  and  cease  entirely  at  the  end  of  the 
tenth  year. 

2.  All  persons  who  use  opium  are  required  to  register 
their  names  with  the  police  and  obtain  permits  which  will 
allow  them  to  purchase  a  given  quantity  of  the  drug  at  cer- 
tain periods.  AH  persons  over  sixty  years  of  age  may  con- 
tinue its  use  as  at  present,  but  all  persons  under  that  age 
will  be  required  to  reduce  their  consumption  by  twenty  per 
cent,  yearly,  and  cease  to  use  it  entirely  at  the  end  of  five 
years.  The  permits  are  to  be  renewed  annually,  and  the  allow- 
ance indicated  upon  them  will  be  reduced  twenty  per  cent 
in  time  and  in  quantity.  At  the  end  of  the  five  years,  persons 
under  sixty-five  years  of  age  who  continue  to  use  opium  will 
be  compelled  to  wear  a  distinctive  badge  which  will  advertise 
them  publicly  as  opium  fiends. 

3.  All  government  officials,  even  princes,  dukes,  viceroys, 
and  generals,  less  than  sixty  years  of  age,  must  give  up  the 
habit  within  six  months  or  tender  their  resignations.  _ 

4.  All  teachers  and  students  must  abandon  the  habit  within 
one  year. 

5.  All  officers  of  the  army  and  navy  must  abandon  the 
habit  at  once. 

6.  Dealers  in  opium  are  required  to  take  out  licenses,  and 
to  report  all  purchases  and  sales  to  the  police.  Their  pur- 
chases of  stock  must  decrease  annually  at  the  rate  of  twenty 
per  cent.,  and  at  the  end  of  five  years  must  cease  altogether. 

7.  The  number  of  licenses  issued  will  decrease  in  the 
same  proportion,  so  that  the  opium  shops  will  be  abolished 
gradually. 

8.  The  sale  of  pipes,  lamps,  and  other  smoking  appliances 
must  cease  within  the  year. 

^  The  Baptist  Missionary  Magazine,  April,  1907. 


292  Appendix  F 

9.  All  places  of  public  resort  for  opium  smoking  are  to 
be  closed,  and  those  who  are  addicted  to  the  habit  must  prac- 
tise it  at  their  own  homes. 

10.  Violations  of  this  law  are  to  be  punished  by  the  im- 
prisonment of  the  offenders  and  by  the  confiscation  of  all 
their  property. 

11.  The  importation  of  morphia  and  other  medicinal  forms 
of  opium  and  hypodermic  syringes  is  permitted  under  most 
stringent  regulations,  and  the  sale  limited  to  practising  physi- 
cians. 

12.  The  government  will  establish  dispensaries  at  which 
medicines  to  counteract  the  craving  for  opium  will  be  furnished 
to  the  public  free  of  cost. 

The  Revolution  and  Opium^ 
The  Revolution  proved  a  serious  set-back  to  the  cause  of 
opium  suppression.  In  a  number  of  provinces  where  poppy 
cultivation  had  previously  been  stamped  out  or  was  rapidly 
disappearing  the  plant  reappeared,  sometimes  under  official 
encouragement.  The  republican  government,  however,  adopted 
the  same  attitude  toward  the  opium  question  as  its  predecessor, 
and  endeavored  to  enforce  the  regulations  against  opium- 
smoking  and  the  cultivation  of  the  poppy.  Its  efforts  were 
not  invariably  successful.  But  while  a  large  opium  crop  was 
being  harvested  in  many  parts  of*  China,  the  foreign  opium 
trade  was  systematically  obstructed.  On  September  16  seven 
chests  of  Malwa  Opium  were  seized  at  Anking  by  the  military 
governor's  orders  and  were  publicly  burnt.  After  making 
strong  representations  on  the  subject,  the  British  Consul- 
General  at  Shanghai  proceeded  to  Anking  on  a  British  man- 
of-war  for  a  personal  discussion  with  the  governor.  In 
Shanghai  the  obstruction  placed  in  the  way  of  the  trade  led 
to  the  accumulation  of  stocks  of  Indian  opium  of  a  value  of 
£11,000,000.  The  matter  was  referred  by  the  consular  body 
at  that  port  to  the  diplomatic  corps  in  Peking,  and  on  Decem- 
ber 15  the  British  minister  "warned  the  Chinese  government 
that,  unless  unequivocal  assurances  were  immediately  forth- 
coming that  it  was  the  intention  of  China  to  observe  the 
Agreement  (of  May,  1911),  he  would  be  compelled  to  advise 
his  government  that  remonstrances  were  ineffective." 
Opium  merchants  in  India  petitioned  the  Indian  government 
toward  the  end  of  December  for  the  immediate  stoppage  for 
the  present  of  sales  of  opium  for  export  to  China.  A 
Presidential  Mandate  issued  on  December  25,  1912,  dealt  with 
the  subject  of  opium,  but  without  offering  a  direct  reply  to 
the  representations  made  by  the  British  minister. 
^  China  Year  Book,  191 3,  p.  644. 


Appendix  G 


293 


APPENDIX  G 


Unoccupied  Fields 


Statistics  relating  to  Missionary 
Republic. 


Occupation  of  the  Chinese 


Area  in 
Province  sq.  miles 

Anhwei    54,8io 

Chekiang  ....     36,670 

Chihli   115,800 

Fukien    46,320 

Honan    67,940 

Hunan    83,380 

Hupeh    71,410 

Kansu  125,450 

Kiangsi 69,480 

Kiangsu   38,610 

Kwangsi 77,200 

Kwangtung  . .  99,970 
Kweichow  ...  67,160 
Manchuria  . . .  363,610 

Mongolia 1,367,600 

Shansi 81,830 

Shantung 55,97o 

Shensi 75,270 

Sinkiang    550,340 

Szechwan  ....  218,480 

Tibet  463,200 

Yunnan 146,680 


Number  of 
Inhabitants 

23,670,314 
11,580,692 
20,937,000 
22,876,540 
35,316,800 
22,169,673 
35,280,685 
10,385,376 
26,532,125 
13,980,235 

5,142,330 
31,865,251 

7,650,282 
16,000,000 

2,600,000 
12,200,456 
38,247,900 

8,450,182 

1,200,000 
68,724,890 

6,500,000 
12,324,574 


Popu- 

lat.  per 

sq.  mile 

432 

316 

180 

494 
520 
266 
492 

82 
382 
362 

67 
319 
114 

44 

2 

149 

683 

III 

2 

314 

14 

84 


Mission 
Sta- 
tions 
22 
30 
26 
42 

33 
19 
31 
17 
37 
19 

8 
5^ 

6 
24 

4 
35 
32 
27 

3 
47 


Mis-  Number  of 
sion-  People  per 
aries  Missionary 
123  192,458 
38,472 
75,600 
60,503 
214,041 
120,484 
126,000 
148,371 
156,994 
47,674 
102,840 

67,654 
23        332,609 
107        149,523 
10       260,000 
84,138 
111,510 

88,947 

66,667 

178,044 


301 
277 
378 
165 
184 
280 

70 
169 
503 

SO 
471 


145 

343 

95 

18 

386 


39   316,014 


Total  ...4,277,170  433,635,305   loi  527  4,137   104,818 


294  Appendix  H 


APPENDIX  H 

Railway  Systems 

/.    Northern  System 

Manchurtan  Lines. — ^There  are  2,430  miles  of  railway  in 
Manchuria,  already  completed  and  in  operation.  About  338 
miles  are  under  construction,  and  4,760  are  projected.  Since 
the  war  between  Russia  and  japan,  the  control  of  the  railways 
in  Manchuria  has  almost  entirely  passed  out  of  the  hands  of 
the  Chinese,    About  two  thirds  are  Russian  and  Japanese. 

Shansi-M ongolian  Line. — In  this  system  a  line  of  125  miles 
has  been  built  from  Peking  to  Kalgan.  It  was  constructed 
without  foreign  assistance  by  Jeme  Tien-yu,  an  able  and  effi- 
cient Chinese  engineer,  educated  at  Yale  University.  The 
work  has  been  well  done,  and  is  an  evidence  of  the  ability 
of  the  Chinese  to  build  their  own  roads.  This  line  is  to  be 
extended  through  the  Province  of  Shansi,  and  eventually  will 
pass  through  Mongolia  and  connect  with  the  Trans-Siberian 
Railway,  "which  will  reduce  the  transit  period  between  Europe 
and  the  Chinese  capital  by  about  two  days  travel,  bringing 
Peking  within  ten  days  of  Paris." 

//.    Central  System 

'Peking-Hankow  Line. — The  most  important  road  in  this  sys- 
tem is  the  Peking-Hankow  line  of  755  miles,  which  has  been 
in  operation  for  about  five  years.  It  was  constructed  by 
Belgian  engineers,  but  is  now  owned  and  controlled  by  the 
Chinese  government. 

Tientsin-Pukow  Line. — Another  line  connecting  the  North 
with  the  Yangtze  is  the  Tientsin-Pukow  Railway,  which  joins 
Tientsin  with  Pukow,  a  city  on  the  Yangtze  opposite  Nanking. 
The  northern  half,  232  miles,  was  built  by  the  Germans  and 
the  southern  half,  240  miles,  by  the  British.  The  line  has  been 
recently  completed  and  is  now  in  operation  with  regular  train 
service,  A  traveler  may  leave  Shanghai  by  the  Shanghai-Nan- 
king Railway,  and  then  crossing  the  river  to  Pukow  may  pro- 
ceed on  his  journey  by  the  Tientsin-Pukow  Railway  to 
Tientsin,  whence  he  may  travel  by  rail  through  Manchuria  and 


Appendix    H  295 

take  the  Trans-Siberian  train  to  Europe.  Thus  Shanghai  and 
Calais  are  now  connected  by  rail.  As  the  line  passes  through 
those  districts  of  the  country  most  often  visited  by  floods  and 
famines,  it  will  be  a  means  of  bringing  more  speedy  relief  to 
the  suffering  people  when  these  calamities  occur.  The  capital 
has  been  rendered  far  more  accessible  for  it  is  possible  now 
to  reach  Peking  frorri  Shanghai  in  36  hours. 

Other  Proposed  Lines. — Many  other  lines  are  in  process  of 
construction  in  this  system,  and  the  Chinese  are  anxious  to 
build  branch  lines  in  connection  with  the  trunk  systems,  so 
that  local  industries  may  be  developed.  The  former  govern- 
ment contemplated  the  construction  of  a  line  1,250  miles  long 
to  connect  Ilifu.  on  the  western  frontier,  v/ith  Peking.  This 
would  call  for  a  vast  expenditure  of  capital  and  it  may  be  some 
time  before  the  project  is  again  taken  in  hand. 

Summary  of  This  System. — The  railways  now  in  operation 
in  this  division  aggregate  2,038  miles.  Up  to  the  time  of  the 
revolution  680  miles  additional  were  in  process  of  construction, 
and  3,095  miles  had  been  surveyed  or  projected.  The  map 
on  page  83  will  show  how  much  this  system  will  be  de- 
veloped. 

IIL    The  Midland  or  Yangtze  Valley  System 

_  Two  Constructed  Lines. — In  this  system  the  Shanghai-Nan- 
king Railway,  193  miles,  and  the  Shanghai-Hangchow  Railway, 
125  miles,  have  already  been  constructed. 

Projected  Hankow-Chengtu  Line. — Of  the  utmost  importance 
will  be  the  Hankow-Ichang-Chengtu  line,  which  will  span  a 
distance  of  800  miles  and  will  make  access  to  the  wonderfully 
rich  Province  of  Szechwan  far  easier  than  it  is  at  present. 
The  rapids  in  the  Yangtze  gorges  have  all  along  been  the 
great  hindrance  to  the  development  of  trade  in  this  part  of 
China.  Thus  far  but  a  short  portion  of  the  road  has  been 
completed  and  many  difficult  engineering  problems  will  have 
to  be  met  and  conquered  by  the  Chinese  engineers  who  have 
the  work  in  hand.  As  the  cost  is  unusual,  the  Chinese  have 
found  difficulty  in  financing  it,  and  the  use  of  a  portion  of  the 
Five  Nations  Loan  for  this  purpose  is  contemplated. 

Problems  and  Results. — Owing  to  the  splendid  waterways  in 
Central  China,  especially  in  the  lower  Yangtze  Valley,  it  has 
not  been  easy  for  the  railways  to  compete  with  the  boat  traffic. 
This  is  largely  due  to  the  fact  that  goods  are  taxed  in  transit 
at  various  likin  ^  stations  along  the  line.     If  the  likin  barriers 

*  Likin  stations  are  small  customs  barriers  erected  along  the  waterways  of 
China  where  commodities  in  transit  have  to  pay  toll  or  excise  duties. 


296  Appendix    H 

were  done  away  with,  the  railroads  would  undoubtedly  pro- 
duce a  handsome  profit.  Altogether  this  system  has  328  miles 
in  operation,  300  miles  actually  in  course  of  construction,  and 
some  1,300  miles  surveyed  or  projected. 


IV.    Southern  System 


Three  Important  Features. — The  three  important  features  of 
this  system  are:  i.  The  slow  advancement  of  the  work  on  the 
Canton-Hankow  Railway,  the  great  north  and  south  line  which 
will  connect  with  the  Peking-Hankow  Railway  and  thus  unite 
Canton  with  the  capital ;  2.  the  construction  of  a  large  number 
of  small  lines  connecting  Canton,  Hongkong,  and  Macao;  and 
3.  the  proposed  system  of  railways  in  the  Provinces  of 
Kwangtung  and  Kwangsi  to  join  the  Canton-Hankow  Railway 
with  the  interior  and  eventually  with  the  railways  on  the 
western  and  southern  borders. 

American  Initial  Relation  and  Summary. — It  will  be  remem- 
bered that  the  concession  for  building  the  Canton-Hankow 
Railway  was  first  granted  to  an  American  syndicate,  and  that, 
owing  to  mismanagement  far  from  creditable,  it  was  finally 
sold  back  to  China.  This  system  has  314  miles  in  operation, 
384  miles  in  actual  course  of  construction  and  some  2,000 
miles  surveyed  or  projected. 


V.    Southwestern  System 


Lines  Toward  French  Territory. — In  this  system  the  French 
have  completed  the  Yunnan- Anam  Railway  from  Laokai  on  the 
China-Tongking  frontier  to  Yunnan,  the  capital  of  the  province 
by  that  name,  a  distance  of  about  310  miles.  The  Yunnan- 
Szechwan  Railway  has  been  surveyed  and  a  large  amount  of 
capital  has  been  raised  for  its  construction.  This  line  from 
the  south  may  be  the  first  connecting  the  rich  Province  of 
Szechwan  with  the  sea,  through  French  territory.  It  will 
tap  a  marvelous  country,  and  the  mines  in  Yunnan  of  tin, 
antimony,  iron,  and  coal  will  find  an  easy  outlet  to  the  sea. 

Prospective  British  Connections  and  Summary. — Of  the 
projected  lines  the  most  interesting  are  those  that  will  connect 
the  Province  of  Yunnan  with  the  British  lines  in  Burma.  Only 
one  railway  is  in  operation — the  Laokai-Yunnan,  but  about 
"^iSTS  miles  have  been  projected  and  partly  surveyed. 


Statistics  of  the  Work  of  Protestant  Missions  in  China  for  1910 


-I  i 


11  1 


1  'I 

?    'S 


iSiS 


!:Sa. 


INDEX 


(The  variation  in  the  pronunciation  of  words,  such  as  TangKTang),  Tao  (Dow), 
comes  from  the  presence  or  absence^of  the  aspirate  mentioned  on  page  279.  The 
tendency  is  not  to  indicate  this  in  the  English  printing.) 


Abdication,  edict  of,  42 

Address  to  Christians  by  H. 
E.  Yen  Hui-ching,  63 

Advisory  Provincial  Assem- 
blies, 27,  58 

Aggression,  foreign,  23 

Agnosticism  finding  entrance, 
169,  191 

Agriculture  the  main  occupa- 
tion, 85 

Aliens  in  China,  7 

Alliance  of  Great  Britain  and 
France,  17 

Alphabet  needed,  a  Chinese, 
153 ;  ideographs,  a  problem, 
165 

Altar  of  Heaven,  185 

Altruism,  beneficent,  of  med- 
ical missions,  221,  222;  need 
of  Christian,  in  dealing  with 
China,  32 

American  and  Chinese  citizen- 
ship compared,  54,  57;  early 
finances,  65 

American  Bible  Society's 
work,  230 

Amherst,  Lord,  mission  to 
China,  10,  11 

Amoy,  IS,  231  ^ 

An  Exhortation  to  Learn, 
book  by  H.  E.  Chang  Chih- 
tung.  150 

Ancestral   worship,   183,   185; 


and  Christianity,  192;  indi- 
vidualism and,  193 

Andrade,  Fernao  Peres  de,  re- 
ferred to,  6 

Animism,  182,  187 

Annals  of  the  American 
Academy  of  Political  and 
Social  Science,  quoted,  52, 
104 

Anti-opium   Society,   113,  219 

Appeal  of  the  gospel,  239,  240 

Area  and  population :  Chinese 
Empire,  51,  286;  early  esti- 
mates of  population,  287; 
Provinces  of  China,  286 

Aristotle,  164 

Arrow  war,  the,  15-17 

Arsenals,  98 

Athletics,  133;  cause  of  in- 
terest in,  135;    training,  135 

Attitude  toward  Christianity, 
201 

Awakening  of  China,  causes 
of,  215 

B 

Baptist  Missionary  Magazine ^ 

quoted,  291 
Barbarians,     all     Westerners 

viewed  as,  8 
Benevolence,    book    by    Tan 

Sze-tong,  referred  to,  198 
Bergen,  Dr.  Paul  D.,  quoted, 

176 


299 


300 


Index 


Bible  Societies,  230,  232 

Bibliography,  country  and 
people,  281;  missions,  284; 
religions,  283;  special  sub- 
jects, 282 

Bitton,  Rev.  Nelson,  quoted, 
72,  271 

Bland,  J.  O.  B.,  quoted,  70, 
137,  209 

Blind,  asylums  for,  223 

Board  of  Education  appoint- 
ed, 26 

Bogue  forts,  9 

Bondfield,  Rev.  G.  H.,  quoted, 
74,  138,  211 

Book  of  Rites,  131 

Boxer  outbreak,  25,  26,  149; 
use  of  the  indemnity  fund, 
159 

Brent,  Bishop,  114 

Bret  Harte,  referred  to,  130 

Brinkley,  Captain  Frank, 
quoted,  3 

British  and  Foreign  Bible  So 
ciet}^  230 

Brown,  Rev,  S.  R.,  20 

Bruce,  Sir  Frederick,  19 

Buddhism,  181,  187,  189,  198, 
199,  229;  influence  of  its 
early  missionaries,  5 

Buddhist  ruler  in  Outer  Mon- 
golia, 45,  46 

Burlingame,  Anson,  19 

Burton;  Ernest  D.,  quoted,  34 


California,  coolies  in,  17 

Calls  from  the  Head  of  the 
Church,  268-270 

Canonical  books,  the  Chinese, 
144. 

Cantlle,  Dr.,  dean  of  Hong- 
kong College  of  Medicine, 
40 

Canton,  a  treaty  port,  15,  17; 


English  at,  9;  opium  com- 
missioner at,  13 

Canton  Christian  College 
Notes,  quoted,  177 

Canton's  Christian  Commis- 
sioner of  Education,  158 

Capen,  E.  W.,  quoted,  105, 
174,  241 

Carlyle,  Thomas,  quoted,  109 

Centenary  Mission  Conference 
resolution,  236 

Chang  Chih-tung  (Jang  Jer- 
doong),  quoted,  33,  150,  173 

Chang  Chin-wu  (Jang  Jin- 
woo),  49 

Qiang-chun  (Jang-joon),  47 

Chang  Pin-lin  (Jang  Pin-lin), 
199 

Changes,  in  China,  4;  in 
Japan,  3 

Changing  Chinese,  The,  quot- 
ed, 93,  128,  217,  228,  240,  252 

Character  the  object  in  edu- 
cation, 166 

Charles  I  of  England,  9 

Chekiang  (Jegeang),  248. 

Cheng  Chang-lu  (Jiing  Jang- 
loo),  quoted,  32 

Chengtu  (Jungdoo),  98,  274 

Chentung  Liang-Cheng 
(Jungdoong  Leang-Chung), 

21 

Chihli    (Je-le),    156 

Child  labor,  92 

China  and  the  powers,  32 

China  Amission  Year  Book, 
191 1,  1912,  quoted,  76,  139, 
261,  262,  267,  287,  292 

China  Year  Book,  1912,  1913, 
quoted,  76,  210,  218,  220, 
246,  287,  292 

China's  civilization,  character 
of,  4;  early  attitude  to  for- 
eigners, 5 ;    later,  6 

China's  Only  Hope,  quoted, 
3Z,  150,  173 


Index 


301 


Chinese  classics  and  moral 
teaching,  164;  new  educa- 
tion and  agnosticism,  169 

"Chinese  Oxford  Movement/* 
197 

Chinese  Recorder,  quoted,  53, 
71,  74,  106,  138,  175,  176, 
177,  209,  211,  240,  242,  271, 
272,  275 

Chinese  students  in  United 
States,  148,  149,  159,  160 

Ching  Chun-wang  ( J  i  n  g 
Joon-wang),  quoted,  34 

Chin-shih    (Jm-she),  45 

Christ.     See  Jesus  Christ 

Christian  Education  of  Wom- 
en in  the  East,  The,  quoted, 

Christian  Literary  Society,  220 
Christian   Missions   in   China, 

See  Missions,  Protestant 
Christianity,      advocated      by 

prominent  men,  63,  64 ;  need 

for,  68,  93,  94 
Christians,    massacre    of,    6; 

meeting  of  in  Peking,  63; 

service  in  revolution,  202 
Chungking       (Choong-king), 

231 
Church  control  of  schools,  170 
Church  in  the  Mission  Field, 

The,  quoted,  249,  251 
Church  unity,  257,  260-263 
Civil     service     examinations, 

old-time,  22;    abolished,  26 
"Closed  door"  policy,  7 
Clothes,    philosophy    of,    and 

changes  in,  129,  130 
Coalition  cabinet,  43 
Coal  districts,  95 
Coal  mining  company,  82 
Co-hong,  the,  12 
College  degrees,  old  style,  144, 

145 
College  of  the  Hanlin,  145 


Commercial     dealings      with 

England,  9-12 
Common  tongue  to  be  devel- 
oped, 86 
Confucianism,     181,     184-186, 

196,  197 
Confucius,   teachings   of,   98; 

worship     of;     abolished    in 

schools,  158 
Constitutional         government 

promised,  26,  42,  58 
Constructive    work    of    new 

government,  50 
Converts,    changed    lives    of, 

228,  229 
Coolie    class,    marked     early 

Chinese    in    United    States, 

160 
Coolie  traffic,  the,  17 
Cooperation     in     educational 

work,  169 
Copper  ore,  97 
Corvino,  John  de,  6 
Costume    and    etiquette,    no, 

129-133 
Cotton,  89 
Crisp  loan,  45 
Criticism    of    missions,    233- 

238;    Chinese  approval,  235 
Cruelty  to  prisoners,  Chinese, 

18 
Cuba,  coolies  in,  17 
Cue-cutting,  130 
Curzon,  Lord,  quoted,  69 

D 
Daily  paper,  the,  170 
Dalai  Lama,  the,  48 
Darwin  widely  read,  191 
Dates     relating     to     modern 

Chinese  history,  288 
Deaf  mutes  taught,  224 
Deaths  of  Emperor  and  Em- 
press Dowager,  28 
Degrees,  old-time  college,  144, 
145 


302 


Index 


De  Groot,  J.  J.  M.,  quoted, 

i8i,  202,  208 
Demonology,  Chinese,  188 
Disarmament  Society,  33 
Dockyards,  98 
Dubose,  Dr.  H.  C,  referred 

to,  113 


East  and  the  West,  The,  quot- 
ed, 72,  105,  I74>  241,  265, 271 
East  India  Company,  10,  11 
Eastern  and  Western  civiliza- 
tions contrasted,   5 
Eastern  Inner  Mongolia,  47 
Eclecticism,  tendency  toward, 

199 
Economic  development  looked 

for,  62 
Edict  of  abdication,  42 
Edinburgh  World  Missionary 
Conference  Report,  quoted, 
173,  249,  251 
Education,    chart,    151 ;    Chi- 
nese,  143-146;    effects,  146, 
149 ;  need  for  the  new,  147 ; 
recommendations     for    na- 
tional assembly,  163;  West- 
ern system  adopted,  150 
Eight-legged  essays,  148 
Eliot,  President  C  W.,  quot- 
ed, 33,  73,  240 
Elliot,  Captain,  13,  14 
Ellis,  William  T.,  3,  270 
Empress    Dowager,    24,    26; 
action  on  opium  traffic,  114; 
edict  on  new  schools,  153 
England  and  China,  9 
English   language,  86;    liter- 
ature in  schools,  155 
Ethical  basis,  China's,  93 
Etiquette,   ancient   and    mod- 
ern, changes  in,  131 
Evangelistic   work,   224;    re- 
sults, 225-227 


Evil  spirits,  belief  in,  206 
Evolution    finds     acceptance, 

191 
Exclusiveness  abandoned,  4 


"Father     of      Railways      in 

China,"  21 
Feng  shui  (Fung-shooe),  82, 

96,  187 
Fenn,  Dr.  C.  H.,  quoted,  272 
Financial,  difficulties  in  school 
work,  152,  158;  problems  of 
the  Republic,  43-45,  49 ;    re- 
form, 65 
Five    Railway    Systems,    Na- 
tions Loan,  84,  86,  87 
Fong  F.  Sec,  quoted,  177 
Foochow,  15 

Foot-binding,   no,  120-123 
Foreign  loans,  95-97;    money 
for    buildings,    254;     trade 
statistics,  loi,  102 
France,  24 ;  war  with,  21 
Freedom  of  the  press,  171 
Fukien   (Foo-jeen),  247,  259 


Germany,  23 

Gibson,  Dr.  J.  C,  quoted,  255, 
259,  267,  275 

Giles,  Professor  H.  A.,  quot- 
ed, 193,  223,  290 

Goodnow,  Professor  Frank 
J.,  50 

Gordon,  Gen.,  quoted,  99 

Government  examination  sys- 
tem, 22,  24,  144,  145;  re- 
forms in,  148,  149;  sup- 
planted by  Western  meth- 
ods, 150 

Government  policy  toward 
railways,  82-88 


Index 


303 


H 

Hankow    bomb    factory,    38, 

41 
Hankow-Peking  Railway,  104 
Hanyang      (Han-yang),     39; 

iron  works,  97,  98 
Harada,  Tasuka,  LL.D.,  quot- 
ed, 264 
Hart,  Sir  Robert,  work  of,  33 
Hibberf  Journal,  quoted,  69 
Holland,  embassy  from,  8 
Honan  (Honan),  156 
Hongkong,  ceded  to  England, 
15;  Morrison  school  at,  20; 
rioting  sailors  in,  13 
Hsu    (She),    General,  202 
Hsuan-Tung  ( S  h  o  o  a  n- 

Toong),  infant  emperor,  29 
Huang  Hui  (Hooang  Hooe), 

49 
Huang      Hsing      (Hooang 

Shing),  210 
Hunan  (Hoo-nan),  150 
Hupeh    (Hoo-ba),    150,    156, 

248 
Huxley's  works  read,  191 


Iconoclastic  tendencies,  199 

Ideals,  divergent,  8 

Ideas   of  the  Orient,  change 

in,  3 
Ignorance  persisted  in,  14 
Illiteracy,  147 
Imperial  audience,  first  given 

to  foreigners,  20 
Imperial     Maritime     Customs 

Service,  Sir  Robert  Hart's 

work  in,  33 
Importation    of    pig    iron    to 

United  States,  97 
Income,  China's,  102 
Indemnity,  15,  235,  237 
India,    trade    routes    to,    4; 


Buddhist  missionaries  from, 

5 

India's  educational  mistakes, 
163 

Individualism,  workings  of, 
no,  132,  193,  194 

Inquisition  in  Spain  referred 
to,  64 

Insanity,  224 

Intellectual  and  Political  Cur- 
rents in  the  Far  East,  quot- 
ed, 58,  60,  197 

International  Review  of  Mis- 
sions, quoted,  264 

Intoxicants  substituted  for 
opium,  119 

Investigation  of  Christianity, 
201 

Iron,  97 

Isolation  of  China  geograph- 
ically, 4 

Italy,  24 

J 

Jacks,  L.  P.,  quoted,  69 

Jackson,  Dr.,  tribute  to,  222 

Japan,  an  object  lesson,  264; 
changes  in,  3 ;  disastrous 
results  of  war  with,  22,  23; 
influence  of  on  China,  27,  28 

Japanese  as  translators,  192 

Jeme  Tien-yu,  21 

Jesuits  in  China,  217 

Jesus  Christ,  201 ;  compared 
with  Confucius,  64,  186; 
statements  of  Chinese  Mul- 
lahs, 208 

Johnson,  Dr.  Samuel,  re- 
ferred to,  171 

Johnston,  Mr.  Leslie,  quoted, 
266 

Jones,  Chester  Lloyd,  quoted, 
52 

Journal  of  Race  Develop- 
ment, quoted,  33,  34,  73,  74, 
240 


304 


Index 


Julian  the  Apostate,  referred 
to,  206 

Justice,  missionary  interfer- 
ence with,  203 


K 


Kaiping  coal-mining  railway, 
82 

Kang  Hsi  (Kang  She),  Man- 
chu  emperor,  8 

Kang  Yu-wei  (Kang  Yoo- 
wa),  24 

Kautsung  (Gaoot-zoong),  em- 
peror, 6 

Kiaowchow  (Keao-j6),  23 

Kipling,  Rudyard,  quoted,  239 

Koo,  V.  K.  W.,  quoted,  6 

Korea  in  dispute,  2.2 

Kowloon,  rioting  sailors  at,  13 

Kowtow,  the,  8,  10,  ii 

Kropotkin,   P.  A.,  quoted,  Z7 

Kuang  Hsu  (Gooang-she), 
emperor,  24,  149 

Ku  Hung-ming  (Goo  Hoong- 
ming),  quoted,  197 

Kung  Ho  Tang  (Goong  H5 
Dang),  49 

Kuo  Ming  Tang  (Goo-6  Ming 
Dang),  the,  49 

Kwangchow   (Gooang-j6),  24 

Kwangsi  (Gooang-se),  mas- 
sacre of  a  missionary  at,  17 


Labor  problems,  92 

Lambert,  Miss,  quoted  on 
education  of  women,  139 

Laotsze  (Low-dse),  187 

Laundryman,  the  Chinese,  160 

Leper  homes,  222, 

Liang  Chi-chao  (Leang  Che- 
chow),  24 

Liang  Tun-yen  (Leang  Toon- 
yun),  21 


Li  Hung-chang  (Le  Hoong- 
jang),  in  United  States,  160 

Li  Yuan-hung  (Le  Yooan- 
hoong).  Gen.,  z^,  39;  plot 
against,  and  plotters,  49 

Lin  Boon  King,  Dr.,  referred 
to,  192 

Lin  Tse-su  (Lin  Dse-se), 
Commissioner,  12,  14;  let- 
ter to  Queen  Victoria,  14 

Lin  Wei-hi  (Lin  Wa-he), 
killed   in   riot,    13 

Liu  Yuk-lin  (Leoo  Yook-lin), 
21 

Loans :  Combined  nations,  29, 
44;  Crisp,  45;  disclosures, 
66,  (iT,  statement  of  Pres- 
ident Wilson,  76 

Lorcha,  Chinese-European 
vessel,  15 

M 

Macao,  coolie  traffic,  17;  Lord 
Napier  at,  12;  Portuguese 
at,  9 

Macartney,  Earl  of,  10 

Machinery,  related  to  manu- 
factures, 91,  92 ;  causes 
Western  trade  expansion,  18 

Macnaughten,  W.,  quoted,  211 

Magazines,  172 

Manchu  conservatism,  28; 
mistakes,  29,  30,  89 

Manchuria,  Russia  and  Japan 
in,  48,  65,  66 

Manila,  Chinese  in,  7;  Olym- 
pic meet,  136 

Marco  Polo,  5 ;  made  prefect 
of  Yangchow,  6 

Marriage  customs,  old  and 
new,  131-133 

Martin,  W.  A.  P.,  quoted,  143 

Martyr  Christians,  258 

Massacre  of  Chinese  in  Man- 
ila, 7;    of  Christians,  6 


Index 


305 


Materialism  a  menace,  195 
Mayer,  W.  R,  quoted,  290 
Medical  work,  220-222,  297 
Men    and    Missions,    quoted, 

276^ 
Mencius  and  Confucius,  164 
Merrins,  Edward  M.,  quoted, 

276 
Metempsychosis    and    eternal 

peace,  189 
Middle  Kingdom,  the,  9 
Mileage  of  railways,  84 
Militarism,  growth  of,  98,  99 
Mills,  90 
Mills,  Mrs.,  224 
Mines,  hindrances  to  develop- 
ment, 94,  95;    undeveloped, 

85 
Ming-Ti    (Mmg-Te),   emper- 
or, 5 
Ministry  of  Education,  157 
Mission  schools,  165-169,  297 
Missionaries,  and  opium,  113, 
114;    influence  of  in  educa- 
tion, 149,  166-170 
Missions,   Protestant,  general 
summary   of,   216-232;     re- 
view  of  criticisms  of,  233- 
238;    statistical  table,  297 
Mistaken    missionary    policy, 

A,  203,  204 
Modernizing,  chief  danger  of 

rapid,  103 
Mongolia,  65,  66 
Morrison,  Dr.  G.  E.,  50 
Morrison,  Robert,  217 
Morrison  school,  the,  20 
Morse,  H.  B.,  quoted,  54,  loi, 

112,  204 
Murray,    Mr.,    institution    in 
Pekmg,  224 

N 

Names,  orthography  and  pro- 
nunciation of  Chinese,  279 


Nanking  Industrial  Exposi- 
tion, 102,  103,  135 

Nanking,  for  a  time  made  the 
capital,  39;  treaty  of,  14,  15 

Napier,  Lord,  11,  12 

Napoleon  III,  17 

National  athletic  meet,  135 

National  Bible  Society  of 
Scotland,  230 

National  consciousness  of 
China  aroused,  56 

National  Consultative  Assem- 
bly, 58 

Need,  of  Christian  evangel- 
ists, 267 ;  of  literature,  266 ; 
of  schools,  264,  265 

Nestorians,  the,  5 

New  Testament,  primary  aim 
of,  231 

New  woman,  the,  no,  123- 
128,  139 

Newspapers,  Chinese,  171 

Ningpo,  Portuguese  in,  6; 
treaty  port,  15 

Non-interference  policy,  6y,  68 

North  China  Herald,  quoted, 
74 

Noyes,  Dr.  H.  V.,  quoted,  106, 
242 


Oath  of  office  of  new  Presi- 
dent, 43 
Olopun,  early  Nestorian,  5 
Opium,  12-17,  no;  agreement 
at  Peking,  116;  Great  Bri- 
tain's attitude,  116;  indem- 
nity, 15;  prohibited,  26, 
in;  prohibition  e(iict,  291; 
reasons  for  using,  and  sta- 
tistics, in;  the  Hague  ap- 
peal, 117;  the  rervolution 
and,  292;  traffic  legalized, 
112;  traffic  terminated,  116, 
117;   Opium  War,  14 


3o6 


Index 


Opportunities  and  problems  of 
Christianity  in  China,  20$, 
206 

Optimistic  viceroy,  an,  172 

Oriental  possibilities,  68 

Orphanages,  222 


Palmerston,  Lord,  11 

Parker,  Rev.  A.  P.,  D.D., 
quoted,  76,  139 

Parker,  Prof.  E.  H.,  quoted, 
75  ;  opinions  of,  on  Chinese 
tolerance,  202 

Parkes,  Harry  S.,  16 

Parliament,  Manchu  conces- 
sion too  late,  27,  59 

Pastor  Hsi  (She),  referred 
to,  258 

Patience  and  charity  needed, 
258 

"Pavilion  of  Purple  Light," 
the,  20 

Peiho  River,  10,  17,  18 

Peking,  17,  18,  27;  continues 
as  capital,  43,  150;  National 
Consultative  Assembly  in, 
58;  ratification  of  treaties 
at,  18 

Peking  Gazette,  the  oldest 
newspaper,  171 

Peking  Syndicate,  Limited,  95 

Pennsylvania  coal  lands  com- 
pared with  Chinese,  95 

People,  The,  a  revolutionary 
organ,  199 

Peru,  coolies  in,  17 

Pettus,  W.  B.,  quoted,  209 

Philanthropic  work,  222-224 

Philippine  Opium  Commission 
Report,  quoted,  11 1 ;  United 
States  Government  Report, 
114 

Philippines,  Spaniards  and 
Chinese  in  the,  7 


Physical  culture,  no,  133-136 
Picul,  the,  113 
Piracy  alleged,  16 
Political  parties,  49,  50 
Poppy  fields  of  Yunnan,  113 
Population,  286,  287 
Port  Arthur,  2Z 
Portuguese,  in  China,  6;   dis- 
orderly, 6;   in  coolie  traffic, 
17;    jealous  of  England,  8 
Postal  system,  100,  loi 
Poverty  in  China,  53,  62 
Prayer  request  from  China,  ix 
Preparatory  schools,  158 
Presbyterian  mission  in  Man- 
churia,  referred  to,  222 
Press,    an    educational    force, 

the,  171,  172 
Pride  of  Chinese,  a  barrier,  16 
Primary  schools  essential,  163, 

164 
Primitive  Culture ,  qnoi^d,  194 
Primitive    religion   of   China, 

182 
Prince   Regent  inefficient,   29 
Problems    of    the    Far   East, 

quoted,  69 
Procter,  J.  T.,  quoted,  176 
Progressive    West,   conserva- 
tive East,  8 
Protestant   Episcopal  mission 

in  Shanghai,  223 
Puget  Sound,  Irondale,  on,  98 
Putnam  Weale,  B.  L.,  quoted, 
104 

Q 

Queen  Victoria,  letter  to,  14 


Railways,  81;  effects  of,  85; 
growth  of,  84;  nationalized, 
29;  superstition  concerning, 
82;  systems,  294 


Index 


307 


Recent   Events   and    Present 

Policies   in   China,   quoted, 

70,  137,  209 

Reform  and   reaction,  24,  25 

Reinsch,  Paul  S.,  quoted,  57, 

59,  197  ^      ^ 

Religion  in  China,  quoted,  200 
Religious  toleration  now  com- 
plete, 62-65 
Republic,    arguments    against 

and  for  its  success,  51-54 
Reshaping   of  the  Far  East, 

quoted,   104 
Revelation  xxii,  i,  2,  quoted, 

215 
Revivals,  accounts  of,  259 
Revolution,  the,  26,  30,  36,  38 
Rhodes,   F.    Herbert,   quoted, 

209 
Richard,  Dr.  Timothy,  220 
Richthofen,  quoted,  95 
Robinson,  Canon  C.  H.,  quot- 
ed, 181,  245 
"Rocket  of  China,"  the,  84 
Roman     Catholic     orphanage 

and  cathedral  burned,  20 
Roman  Catholic  Church,  pol- 
icy of,  203 
Ross,  Professor  E.  A.,  quot- 
ed, 93,  128,  216,  228,  240,  252 
Russia,  8,  45;  jealous  of  Ger- 
many, 23;    treaty  with  em- 
bassy from,   17;    war  with 
Japan,  27 
Russo-Mongolian   convention, 


St.  John's  College,  Shanghai, 

129,  134 
St.  John's  University,  86,  219 
Salt,  a  monopoly,  145 
San-Mun    (San-Moon),   Bay, 

24 
Scholarship,  advancement 

only  by,  55 


School,  grades,  152;  statis- 
tics, 156-158,  160-164 

Schools,  government,  150-165; 
mission,  149,  165-170 

Self-government,  255,  257 

Self-support,  253,  254 

Shanghai,  15 ;  International 
Council  in,  114,  115,  236 

Shanghai  and  Woosung  Rail- 
way, 82 

Shansi  (Shan-se)  Company, 
the,  95 

Shantung  (Shan-doong),  23 

Sheng  Kung-pao  (Shung 
Koong-bow),  88 

Sianfu  (Sean-foo),  150 

Siberia,  an  early  route  from 
Russia,  8 

Silk,  89,  90 

Sinkiang  (Sm-geang),  65,  66, 
248 

Sisters  of  Charity  misunder- 
stood, 144 

Siu-tsai  (Seoo-tsi),  20 

Sixth  National  Convention  of 
Y.  M.  C  A.,  at  Peking,  273, 
274 

Slave  Refuge,  128;  benefit  in 
St.  John's  College,  129 

Slavery  in  China,  128,  129 

Smith,  Dr.  A.  H.,  quoted,  71 

Smuggling  opium,  14 

Smyth,  Dr.  Newman,  261 

Social  customs,  changes  in, 
109,  no,  128,  129 

Society  for  the  Diffusion  of 
Christian  and  General 
Knowledge,  The,  220 

Spaniards  in  China,  6 

Spencer's  works  widely  read, 
191 

Sports  have  become  popular, 
134,  135 

Steel  rails,  97 

Stuart,  J.  Leighton,  quoted, 
274 


3o8 


Index 


Students  sent  to  United 
States,  26 

Stuntz,  Dr.  H.  C,  114 

Summer  palace  at  Peking  de- 
stroyed, 18 

Sun  Yat-sen  (Soon  Yat-siin), 
Dr.,  2T,  a  Christian,  204; 
becomes  provisional  Presi- 
dent, 39;  quoted,  106; 
striking  career,  40-42 ; 
working  to  develop  rail- 
ways, 85 

Superstitions,  barrier  to  ear- 
lier railway  building,  82,  88, 
96,  188 

Szechwan  (Se-chwan),  30,  87, 
III,  247 


Tael,  the,  113 

Taiping,    Rebellion,    referred 

to,  201 
Tai  Tai  (Ti  Ti),  the,  128 
Taku  (Da-Koo),  forts,  17,  18 
Talienwan,  23 
Tan  Sze-tong  (Tan  Se-tong), 

referred  to,  198 
Tang  (Tang)  dynasty,  6,  144 
Tang   Shao-yi    (Tang  Show- 

ye),  21 
Tao   (Dow),  183,  206 
Tao  Kwang   (Dow  Kwang), 

emperor,  12 
Taoism,  181,  183,  186-188 
Teachers  and  text-books,  IS5 
Telegram  from  Peking,  ix 
Telegraph,    99;     Peking    sta- 
tion, 100;   statistics,  100 
"Terrestrial  Astrology,"  96 
Thomson,  John  Stuart,  quot- 
ed, ZZ,  73 
Tibet,  46-48,  65,  66 
Tientsin   (Teen-tsin),  98-100; 
anti-foreign     riot     in,     20; 
treaty  of,  17,  19 


Times,  London,  50 

Tipao   (De-bow),  54 

Tokyo    schools    for    Chinese 

youth,  27 
Toleration,  religious,  17,  202- 

205 
Tong  Kai-son  (Tong  Ki-s6n), 

17,  21,  117 
The    Trade   and  Administra- 
tion of  the  Chinese  Empire, 

quoted,  55,  loi,  112 
Tract  societies  and  work,  231, 

232 
Treaty,    of    Peking,    19;     of 

Tientsin,  17,  19 
Treaty  ports,  15,  17,  19 
Treaties   with   United  States, 

Great  Britain,  France,  and 

Russia,  19 
Tributary  nations,  20 
Truthfulness,    new    spirit    of, 

228,  229 
Tseng  (Dsung),  Marquis,  re- 
ferred to,  201 
Tseheng     Yuan      (Dshung 

Yooan),  the,  58 
Tung  Men  Hui  (Toong  Mun 

Hooe),  the,  50 
Tyler,  quoted,  194 
Tzu  Hsi  (Tsoo  She),  121 

U 

Unification  needed,  86 
Union  University  planned  at 

Foochow,  169 
United  States,  114 
United  Universities,  265 
Universities  planned,  157,  169, 

265 
Unoccupied  fields,  241,  293 
Unrest,  social,  109 
Urga,  46 

V 

Varied     characteristics     in 

China,  86 


Index 


309 


Vassal  states,  9 

Vice  increasing,  119 

Virgin  Mary  and  the  goddess 

of  mercy,  190 
Voice  of  the  people  heard,  56, 

58 

W 

Wang  (Wang),  274 

Wang  Yang-min  (Wang 
Yang-min),  quoted,  197 

War,  first  Anglo-Chinese,  14; 
growing  out  of  Arrow  con- 
troversy, 15 ;  implements 
manufactured,  98 

Weddell,  Captain  John,  9 

Wei-hai-wei    (Wa-hi-wa),  24 

Western  languages  in  univer- 
sities and  schools,  157,  158 

Westerners  all  barbarians  in 
early  view,  8 

Whampoa  harbor,  15 

Whangpoo  River,  82 

Wife  and  opium-smoker,  119 

Williams,  Charge  d'affaires, 
ix 

Williams,  S.  W.,  quoted,  290 

Workers  needed,  248;  partic- 
ularly natives,  249;  perils 
to  be  faced,  252;  qualified 
leaders,  250 

World's  Christian  Students' 
Journal,  quoted,  32,  34,  75; 
referred  to,  92 

Women,  education  of,  147; 
emancipation  of,  131-133; 
new  regard  for,  229,  230 

Woosung,  82 

Wright,  Dr.  Hamilton,  114 


Written     language,     Chinese, 

165 

Wuchang,  30,  39,  IS7 

Wu   Ting-fang    (Woo   Ding- 
fang),  41;    referred  to,  60 

Wyclif,  232 


Xavier,  Fr.,  referred  to,  27 


Yale  University,  Chinese  stu- 
dents at,  20;   recalled,  21 
Yangchow   (Yang-jo),  6,  202 
Yang  (Yang)  and  Yin  (Yin), 
the,  182,  183,  191,  198,  205- 
207 
Yangtze  (Yangtse),  riots,  22; 

River,  22,  84,  87,  97 
Yellow  Peril,  the,  92 
Yen  (Yun),  W.  W,  205 
Yen  (Yun),  Y.  K.,  M.  A.,  219 
Yen  Hui-Ching   (Yun  Hooe- 

ching),  quoted,  63 
Yin     Chang     (Yin     Chang), 

Gen.,  39 
Young  men  in  power,  60 
Yuan  Shih-Kai   (Yooan  She- 
ki),    30,    38,   40-42;     Presi- 
dent,    42,     43;      toleration 
statement,  205 
Yuen-min-yuen    (Yooiin-min- 

yooun),  II 
Yung  Cheng   (Yoong  Jung), 

III 
Yung  Wing   (Yoong  Wing), 

20,  148,  219 
Yunnan    (Yoon-nan),    poppy 
fields,  113 


Princeton  Theological  Seminary  L  branes 


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05 


Date  Due 

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